EFL Studies - Page 3

The English Language Limits Me! Connecting Third Space to Curriculum Transformation in a South African University, Expanding Epistemological Landscapes?

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Mzukisi Howard Kepe
University of Fort Hare, South Africa. Email: mkepe@ufh.ac.za

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 4, December, 2022. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.19
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Abstract

Many studies were conducted on conventional colonial heritage; however, less attention examines the developing concept of curriculum decolonisation in South African universities. This paper advocates for a hybrid literacy between traditional conceptions of academic literacy and instruction for students’ sociohistorical lives, affluent and less affluent. I discuss and illustrate the hegemony of English in high-learning institutions and the post-apartheid mainstream education system. Alongside my previous work in the language field, I interrogate the impasse of language policy in high education and South African schools. This paper is an ethnographic study congruent with the interpretivism paradigm, employing the semi-structured interview for data collection. The third space supports it as a theoretical framework. It affords the provision and guidance for classroom instruction and autonomous learning modes balance, where developing new knowledge is heightened, allowing students’ voices. It is a response to the 2015-2016 student protests on South African university campuses, where several were perplexed on how to respond to the demands of the students to end violent protests against western disciplinary norms that devalue non-centre practices and themes. Biliteracy and translingualism are empathised as the concepts against ownership of language and culture, and its territorialisation, challenging the traditional contrast of ‘native’ and ‘non-native’ speakers and its connection to a particular nation-state.

Keywords: Biliteracy, Curriculum, Decolonisation, Essentialist view, Hybrid Literacies, Language Policy in Higher Education- South Africa, Third Space, Translingualism

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Assimilation of the Anglo-Saxon System of Education in the Conflicted Ambazonia: Delinking from Colonial Language Ideologies

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John Wankah Foncha1 & Jane-Francis Afungmeyu Abongdia2
1,2 The Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Email: fonchaj@cput.ac.za/ Jane-francisa@cput.ac.za

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 4, December, 2022. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.18 
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Abstract

Education is a mind builder and should be taken as a matter of importance in any nation. Following this, the curriculum designer is responsible for building learners’ minds. Seen through this lens, this theoretical article intends to project the importance of community schools in conflict-stricken Ambazonia against the backdrop of the French curriculum. Education guidelines are addressed with reference to language planning, policy, and implementation. Additionally, the paper seeks to explain the current situation in Ambazonia and make arguments regarding the community schools’ guidelines that aspire for multilingualism, where indigenous languages are taken seriously in teaching and learning. Another point discussed is the transitional authority (Ambazonia Transitional Authority), which was put in place to deal with implementing education guidelines and administrative issues. The paper concludes with the argument that what we think must be transformed into what we do and be shown by what we have done.

Keywords: Colonial Language Ideologies, multilingual, Ambazonia Transitional Authority, education

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What is Performance Studies?

Richard Schechner Tisch School of the Arts, New York University  Download PDF Version Because performance studies is so broad-ranging and

An Investigation into Teacher Preparedness for Emergency Remote Teaching in the Context of Vietnam

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Dao Nguyen Anh Duc
Ho Chi Minh City University of Banking, Vietnam. ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6349-8190. Email id: ducdna@hub.edu.vn

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 4, December, 2022. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.17 
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Abstract

This study examined the preparation English teachers in Vietnam had for Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, it investigated the levels of confidence teachers had about their pedagogical and technological knowledge. It also looked at their attitudinal readiness and the institutional support offered to them. Ninety-seven teachers of English in the southern areas of the country, which were severely hit by the fourth wave of the pandemic from May to September 2021, were invited to complete an online survey. The responses were analyzed descriptively, and item-level means were calculated to identify teachers’ greatest challenges and the instructional aspects they found most confident about during ERT. Cross tabulations were also employed to compare different groups of teachers’ readiness to teach online. The results showed that English teachers in the affected areas perceived themselves to be relatively prepared for the swift transition to online teaching and substantially positive about their pedagogical approach to lesson delivery in the virtual environment. Regarding technological know-how, they exploited various ready-made resources but were unknowledgeable about authoring software and uncertain of how to use technological tools effectively. They also reported receiving little support from their superiors and authorities.

Keywords: teacher preparedness, teacher readiness, ERT, pedagogical knowledge, technological knowledge

The Use of English Placement Test (EPT) in Assessing the EFL Students’ Language Proficiency Level at a Saudi University

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Hebah Asaad Hamza Sheerah1 & Meenakshi Sharma Yadav2

1English Department, Applied College for Girls, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia. ORCID: 0000-0002-7775-4615

2English Department, Applied College for Girls, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia. ORCID: 0000-0001-7962-3267. Email: m-@kku.edu.sa

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 3, September-October 2022, Pages 1–8. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n3.24

First published: October 28, 2022, updated on December 29, 2022 | Area: ELT| License: CC BY-NC 4.0

(This article is published under Volume 14, Number 3, 2022)
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The Use of English Placement Test (EPT) in Assessing the EFL Students’ Language Proficiency Level at a Saudi university

Abstract 

Purpose: In order to ascertain EFL students’ characteristics (English proficiency, fluency, critical thinking, and communication), educational context, level of competence, professional goals, and pursuits for future endeavors, English Placement Tests (EPTs) are conducted in several academic contexts (Lamb, 2017; Ta?pinar & Külekçi, 2018; Stehle & Peters-Burton, 2019; Alrabai, 2021; Yuan, 2022). An EPT is a standard test used to determine students’ levels and abilities in English. It assesses how different their skills are in English before registering for English language courses in schools, universities, and companies. This research lends credence to the EPT’s reliability and validity in determining students’ course enrollment in university education.

Design/methodology/approach: This study implemented a hybrid research design. At the start of the second semester in December 2021, 136 students took the placement test. A t-test was used to compare the students’ pre- and post-test results in order to assess the efficacy and effectiveness of the EPT. Five instructors also took part in a semi-structured interview to discuss their thoughts, beliefs, and experiences related to their teaching-learning enhancement of English programmes at the time the EPT was completed.

Findings: The EPT results show students’ proficiency levels in three main areas: grammar, reading, and listening. After knowing the results of the EPT and the student’s performance, the weak areas were worked on. After one semester’s intervention, the test scores finally resulted positively, showing the students’ improvement. Since the results were statistically positive and significant, the study strongly suggested that EPT must be conducted at the beginning of the semester at the university level. Furthermore, based on the qualitative analysis and the comments and suggestions of the instructors, the idea of having an EPT for English foreign language (EFL) first-year students who want to take English language courses at universities was also strongly favored. The study supports the EPT’s validity for EFL students at college enrollment requirements according to English skills competency levels for English language courses.

Keywords: EFL, EPT, language proficiency, placement, testing, course programs.

A Model Text Recommendation System for Engaging English Language Learners: Facilitating Selections on CEFR

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Adelina Escobar-Acevedo1, Josefina Guerrero-García1, Rafael Guzmán-Cabrera2
1Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Facultad de Ciencias de la Computación, México. adelina.escobar@alumno.buap.mx
2Universidad de Guanajuato, Campus Irapuato-Salamanca, División de Ingenierías, Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica.

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 3, September-October 2022, Pages 1–8. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n3.17

First published: October 17, 2022 | Area: ELT | License: CC BY-NC 4.0

(This article is published under the General Area)
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A Model Text Recommendation System for Engaging English Language Learners: Facilitating Selections on CEFR

Abstract

A pedagogically informed multimodal education system is defined by how well reading tasks are assigned to students in a contemporary classroom. A source that becomes a provider of readings is the web, where it is possible to find information on practically all areas of knowledge and in a wide variety of languages. However, selecting the appropriate material for the level and theme becomes a tedious job to which language teachers must devote a significant amount of their time. Selecting suitable readings to accompany the teaching-learning process is thus not a ‘trivial’ task. Basic-level texts for language competence are easy to recognize and obtain but as is seen in the case of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages recommendations (CEFR), selection of appropriate texts that impart language competencies, especially of vocabulary and grammar at higher levels of communicativeness, selection becomes increasingly complex for teachers. Furthermore, the suggested readings should be raked by complexity in accordance with student capabilities. We suggest, that automatic classifiers based on CEFR levels may help in this process of selections from the already available corpora of authentic texts on the web. The existing facility of access of readers to such material on the web may come to the aid of automated classifiers. Teachers use interest to motivate reading in classrooms, but automatic recommendation systems will allow specific or even individualized recommendations. The authors explore the impact of such multimodal methods on the acquisition of better linguistic and communicative skills.

Keywords: English Language Learners, CEFR Language level, Linguistic Features, Text Complexity.

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Examining Teacher Competencies in Content and Language Integrated Learning: Professional Profiles and Ways Forward

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Hengzhi Hu

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. ORCID: 0000-0001-5232-913X. Email: p108937@siswa.ukm.edu.my

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 2, April-June, 2022, Pages  https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n2.26

First published: June 27, 2022 | Area: EFL Studies | License: CC BY-NC 4.0

(This article is published under Volume 14, Number 2, 2022)
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Abstract

Despite the upsurge of research interest in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) teachers’ professional competencies, very little evidence has been presented from the Chinese academia. To bridge this gap and understand Chinese CLIL teachers’ status quo of competencies in relation to their demographic characteristics, the present study adopted a cross-sectional quantitative survey approach and investigated the differences of linguistic competence, content competence, pedagogic competence, CLIL fundamentals, interpersonal and collaborative competence, and reflective and developmental competence in a sample of 205 CLIL teachers from Chinese higher education providers. They had dissimilar genders, language expertise, content subject specialisation, affiliations, academic degrees, educational backgrounds, years of teaching CLIL and professional titles. Inferential analyses of the data obtained from a questionnaire indicated a high heterogeneity in the sample, allowing of the description of CLIL teachers’ profiles of professional competences in accordance with their demographic factors. It is concluded that professional training and ongoing research into CLIL teachers’ needs are essential to achieve the homogeneity of competencies and that a supportive network should be established to encourage active partnership amongst CLIL teachers and educational institutions.

Keywords: CLIL, teacher competencies, professional identities, professional development.

Introduction

Since the introduction of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in the 1990s, this dual-focused pedagogical approach characterised by using an additional language other than learners’ mother tongue or shared language as the medium of instruction for both content and language learning has stimulated considerable research interest in various educational contexts. Although the level of emphasis placed on content learning and language learning differs from case to case due to the variation in educational policies and contextual needs (Dale & Tanner, 2012), it has been commonly acknowledged that CLIL has dual learning objectives of a discipline subject and a foreign language (L2), the dynamic amalgam of which can benefit learners both cognitively and motivationally (Coyle et al., 2010).

 In Mainland China (hereafter referred to as China), CLIL has been pushed forward since its first domestic application about two decades ago (Lv, 2001), though some scholars maintain that it has already been implemented in the late 1990s in the English-Medium Instruction programmes organised for young learners in developed cities (Wei & Feng, 2015). However, with the upsurge of research and development activities on CLIL application and practices in the western world, there is a dearth of empirical studies in China (Liu, 2019a; Mi, 2015), providing little evidence concerning the feasibility of this educational approach and making it a rare phenomenon for teachers to switch from a conventional L2 teaching approach to CLIL (Liu, 2020).

Against this general backdrop, the present study attempts to contribute to the understanding of CLIL in China by offering practical insights and suggestions out of empirical evidence gathered from real people in contemporary real-life institutions and settings. The pertinent research agenda is quite extensive, while the study brings attention to investigating the competencies of in-service CLIL teachers working in Chinese higher education providers (HEPs), which have witnessed most of the CLIL implementations in China’s educational context (Hu, 2021). CLIL competences refer to the necessary professional skills that a teacher is expected to possess “to teach content subjects and an additional language in an integrated manner” (Marsh et al., 2011, p. 6) and are an important variable as a catalyst for teacher professional development (Coyle et al., 2010). Adopting a survey approach, the author of this paper wishes to answer the following question:

  • Do the survey participants who have differing demographic factors differ in the CLIL competences needed for successful implementation of this pedagogical approach?

It is expected that the research findings can provide valuable insights into CLIL practices in China and encourage more comprehensive teacher development and better organisation of CLIL programmes.

Literature Review

CLIL is a pedagogical approach arising from the foreign language teaching (FLT) practices in Europe, and it is known as “a generic umbrella term that represents a dual-focussed flexible educational approach with multiple dimensions and applications, in which an additional language is used for learning both content and language” (Gabillon, 2020, para. 10). Due to its dual-focused nature which is different from other FLT approaches, it has caught considerable attention of researchers and educators. A popular CLIL research agenda focuses on the investigation of performance evidence (i.e. students’ language and content learning outcomes), effective evidence (i.e. learners’ perceptions, feelings and emotions), process evidence (i.e. key moments when learning occurs) and materials and task evidence (i.e. learning materials used in classes, design and organisation of teaching and learning activities) (Coyle et al., 2010). It is expected that an ideal CLIL study should cover these aspects of evidence to present a comprehensive account of the studied programme, and this train of thought is still the mainstream in academia, underpinning most previous and ongoing studies.

Another CLIL research area is concerned with teachers’ professional development and competencies, which play a significant role in assuring the effectiveness of CLIL implementations. Pavesi et al. (2001) are some of the earliest scholars attempting to bring this topic to the public. While identifying the types of teachers suited to CLIL (e.g. teachers qualified in both L2 and content subject, classroom teachers proficient in using an L2 as the medium of instruction, L2 teachers instructing learners on content subject learning, an L2 teacher cooperating with a content subject teacher), they illustrated that qualified CLIL teachers should have full command of L2 and content knowledge, “deep understanding of the cognitive, socio-cultural and psychological elements” of L2 learning, considerable teamwork skills, willingness to cooperate with other stakeholders (e.g. teachers, specialists) and commitment to classroom-based research (Pavesi et al., 2001, p. 87). One year later, Marsh (2002) proposed the notion of CLIL teacher competencies as to a teacher’s proficiency in the target language (TL), mastery over language theories, ability to employ CLIL methodologies, understanding of the learning environment, capability to develop a range of appropriate learning materials, flexible use of interdisciplinary approaches, and expertise in designing and organising proper assessment tasks. This work has given rise to the proposal of the European Framework for CLIL Teacher Education (hereafter referred to as the Framework) (Marsh et al., 2011), which identifies a CLIL teacher’s competencies with personal reflection (commitment to one’s cognitive, social and affective development), CLIL fundamentals (understandings of CLIL features and theories), content and language awareness (a dual focus on both content learning and language learning), methodology and assessment (pedagogical and professional skills in creating a meaningful learning environment), research and evaluation (engagement in classroom research), learning resources and environments (adopting suitable and cognitively challenging materials), classroom management (knowledge of classroom dynamics and management skills) and CLIL management (developing quality CLIL programmes and courses in collaboration with other stakeholders).

Since the introduction of the Framework, it has been highly rated for its constructiveness in teacher education and professional development (Cinganotto & Cuccurullo, 2017; Wolff, 2012). However, Vilkancien? and Rozgien? (2017) argue that it is vague in that some competencies (e.g. personal reflection) concern more with a teacher’s general capabilities rather than CLIL-specific ones. In comparison, the CLIL Teacher’s Competences Grid (hereafter referred to as the Grid) formulated by Bertaux et al. (2010) tends to be more specific, as it identifies over ten sorts of competencies that are crucial in effective CLIL (i.e. programme parameters, CLIL policy, TL competencies for teaching CLIL, course development, partnerships in supporting student learning, integration, implementation, second language acquisition, interculturality, learning environment management, learner focus in the CLIL environment, learning skills focus in CLIL, learning assessment and evaluation in CLIL, lifelong learning and innovative teaching and learning approaches). However, due to a lack of explicit distinction among those competency areas, the Grid may be too detailed to be effectively adopted in teacher professional development (Vilkancien? & Rozgien?, 2017). In this vein, Pérez-Cañado’s (2018) summative interpretation seems briefer and more practical, and a CLIL teacher should have:

  • linguistic competence: a teacher’s proficiency in the TL being taught and used as the medium of instruction.
  • pedagogical competence: a teacher’s familiarity with a range of student-centred pedagogical skills and methodologies to provide an engaging learning environment, diversified learning materials and appropriate evaluation tasks.
  • scientific knowledge: a teacher’s knowledge of the specific content subject being taught and CLIL-related theories.
  • organisational competence: a teacher’s classroom management ability within CLIL.
  • interpersonal and collaborative competence: a teacher’s ability to address students’ needs and cooperate with colleagues.
  • reflective and developmental competence: a teacher’s awareness of lifelong learning and keeping up with the latest research or information on CLIL.

These frameworks or interpretations have been utilised as a valuable tool in studies to examine CLIL teachers’ competencies and yield insight into professional development (Banegas & del Pozo Beamud, 2020; Cortina-Pérez & Pino Rodríguez, 2021; Custodio-Espinar, 2019; Vázquez et al., 2020). Although the contexts of these studies are different, they have all highlighted the necessity of paying more attention to CLIL teachers’ competencies and providing more training opportunities for them, aimed at promoting professional development.

In China, the syntheses recorded by Mi (2015) demonstrate that divorced from the growing interest in CLIL teacher competencies and development in the western world, only a few Chinese scholars have given heed to these issues. For example, by reviewing the theories underpinning CLIL, Liu and Han (2015), in line with Liu et al. (2016), maintain that to maximise the potential of CLIL, teachers should be competent in CLIL fundamentals, content and language awareness, methodological implementation of CLIL and CLIL management with special attention to cooperation with colleagues. Despite these assumptions, one of the available empirical studies is Liu’s (2019b), the results of which point out various types of competencies expected from the CLIL teachers in a HEP (e.g. the abilities to teach the TL, teach the subject content, foster students’ comprehensive capabilities, manage the classroom, organise assessment activities and design teaching materials). However, her research also has shown unbalanced development of teacher competencies, with several areas (e.g. content awareness, ability to foster learners’ comprehension) deemphasised. This is in line with Cao’s (2021) study on the hindrances to the successful implementation of CLIL, which discloses that CLIL teachers with little content and language awareness may be incompetent to design cognitively appropriate learning materials to rectify the situation that students are less stretched in content learning and less supported in language learning when traditional textbooks are the only source of information. Both Cao (2021) and Liu (2019b), along with some other Chinese researchers (e.g. Li & Yang, 2015; Zhou, 2017) whose studies are not reviewed here because of the page limit, have acknowledged the context-dependent features of their findings and suggested that more attention should be paid to CLIL teachers themselves. This assumption justifies the needfulness and design of the present study set in the Chinese higher education context, which has witnessed and encouraged most of the development of CLIL in China.

Methodology

Research Design

This study adopted a cross-sectional quantitative survey approach, which emphasised the collection of data from a population at a specific point of time. This could allow the researcher to understand the status quo of CLIL teachers’ competencies and compare them among the participants with diverse characteristics (Creswell, 2012). This design corresponded to the research objective and question.

Research Participants

A sample of 205 licensed teachers was recruited from Chinese HEPs by snowball sampling, which was appropriate for the study due to the difficulty of identifying units to include in the sample without a list of the population the researcher was interested in (Creswell, 2012). All the participants were informed of the purpose and design of the study with consent. Their demographic information was recorded in Table 1, including gender, language taught, subject taught, affiliation, highest degree, educational background, years of teaching CLIL and professional title. They were taken as the independent variables (IVs) in this study. Although there were other factors that might also influence the participants’ competencies, namely the dependent variable (DV) of the study, the listed ones were assumed to be sufficient based on previous studies (e.g. Campillo-Ferrer et al., 2020; Custodio-Espinar, 2019; Skinnari & Bovellan, 2016) that had used similar variables to investigate CLIL teachers’ competencies. It should be noted: First, because of the diverse languages the participants taught and the scattered percentages they occupied, they were simply categorised into English and languages other than English (LOTE); Second, the content subjects taught were also categorised into general discipline streams per the educational context in China; Third, despite the various types of HEPs that the participants were affiliated to, they were generally categorised into non-985/211 HEPs and 985 and/or 211 universities1; Fourth, in accordance with the participants’ years of teaching CLIL and Liu and He’s (2014) identification of Chinese teachers’ career stages, they were labelled as novice teachers with 0-5 years of teaching and proficient teachers with 6-14 years of teaching.

Table 1. Demographic Information of the Participants

Gender Female: 54.6% (n = 112)

Male: 45.4% (n = 93)
Language taught English: 77.6% (n = 159)

LOTE: 22.4% (n = 46)
Subject taught Economics: 24.9% (n = 51)

Law: 21.9% (n = 45)

Education: 17.1% (n = 35)

History: 15.6% (n = 32)

Literature: 12.7% (n = 26)

Science: 7.8% (n = 16)
Affiliation Non-985/211 HEPs: 53.2% (n = 109)

985 and/or 211 universities: 46.8% (n = 96)
Highest degree Doctoral degree: 50.7% (n = 133)

Master’s degree: 35.1% (n = 72)
Educational background Language-related: 70.2% (n = 104)

Content-related: 29.8% (n = 61)

Both language and content-related: 19.5% (n = 40)

Research Instruments

The instrument used in the survey was a researcher-made questionnaire named Chinese CLIL Teachers’ Self-Assessment of Competencies. It included six constructs, namely linguistic competence (LC), content competence (CC), pedagogic competence (PC), CLIL fundamentals (CFs), interpersonal and collaborative competence (ICC) and reflective and developmental competence (RDC). This conceptualisation was made based on Pérez-Cañado’s (2018) interpretation. However, the construct of scientific knowledge in her original work was divided into CC and CFs in this study due to her double-barrelled definition. Besides, Pérez-Cañado’s (2018) definition of ICC at a learner level somehow overlaps with the PC and the classroom-management-oriented focus of the organisational competence, because, to some degree, all of them reflect the construction of an engaging and meaningful learning context. Therefore, ICC in this study simply referred to a teacher’s ability to work with colleagues and specialists, and only PC was retained to represent a broad sense of CLIL teachers’ abilities to offer a meaningful learning context. The questionnaire included 31 items on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), and they were adapted from the Framework (Marsh et al., 2011) and the Grid (Bertaux et al., 2010). A pilot study had been run before the study, and it suggested acceptable reliability and validity of the instrument (see Table 2).

Table 2. Reliability and Validity of the Instrument

Cronbach’s Alpha Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Average Variance Extracted Composite Reliability
LC .82 .78 .80
CC .86 .71 .84
PC .76 .83 .88
CFs .88 .62 .93
ICC .74 .59 .81
RDC .77 .69 .90
Entire Questionnaire .80

Data Analysis

The questionnaire was distributed online via Wenjuanxing, a survey platform, and the response rate was 98.04% (n = 201). The collected data were then computed into Statisticsal Package for the Social Sciences 25.0 for analysis. The descriptive statistics reported in this paper included mean and standard deviation. Based on the normal distribution of the data, the inferential analyses were ANOVA when the factor had more than three groups and t-tests when the factor was dichotomous. When the homogeneity of variances was satisfied, one-way ANOVA was run with post hoc analyses with Turkey’s HSD. Otherwise, Welch’s ANOVA was run with Games-Howell. Due to a large amount of data, all the t-tests and ANOVA statistics were compiled together in Appendix. Only the key data with p-values less than .05 in post hoc analyses were recorded in the text.

Results

Linguistic Competence

As shown in Appendix, no statistical difference was found in LC with regard to the participants’ gender, the language taught and highest degree. However, it showed that affiliation influenced CLIL teachers’ LC, with those employed in non-985/211 HEPs having a lower score than those working in 985 and/or 211 universities (t = -3.12, p = .002). Likewise, years of teaching CLIL programmes also played an important role, as novice teachers had a lower level of LC than proficient teachers (t = -2.54, p = .012). In ANOVA analyses, significant statistical difference was only found regarding the educational backgrounds (p = .004). Post hoc analyses (see Table 3) revealed that the teachers with a language-related educational background had a considerably higher level of LC in the self-assessment than those with a content-related or language/content-related educational background (p < .05).

Table 3. Multiple Comparisons of Educational Backgrounds

(I) Educational Background (J) Educational Background Mean Difference (I-J) Sig.
Language-related Content-related 1.727 .018
Both language and content-related 1.938 .022

 Content Competence

As displayed in Appendix, inferential data analyses did not show any statistical difference between CC with the participants’ gender, subject taught, educational background or professional title but with the other IVs. Specifically, CLIL English teachers, 985 and/or 211 university teachers, teachers holding a doctoral degree and proficient teachers were more capable of content teaching than their counterparts, namely CLIL LOTE teachers, non-985/211 HEP teachers, teachers having a master’s degree and novice teachers (p < .05).

Pedagogic Competence

The data recorded in Appendix disclosed that no significant statistical difference was found between PC with the teachers’ gender, subject taught, affiliation, highest degree, educational background or years of teaching CLIL. Nevertheless, there was a substantial difference between CLIL English teachers with LOTE teachers (t = 3.21, p = .002). Meanwhile, a significant difference was found amongst the participants of dissimilar professional titles (F = 4.88, p = .003). Post hoc analyses (see Table 4) presented that teaching assistants had less PC than lecturers and associate professors.

Table 4. Multiple Comparisons of Professional Titles

(I) Professional Title (J) Professional Title Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
Teaching Assistant Lecturer -1.892 .56 .005
Associate Professor -1.705 .61 .029

CLIL Fundamentals

The data in Appendix indicated no statistical difference between the participants’ CFs with their gender, affiliation, educational background or years of CLIL teaching. However, English teachers had better mastery of CLIL-related theories than LOTE teachers (t = 2.48, p = .014). Such a difference could also be found between the teachers who had a doctorate with those who merely had a master’s degree (t = 3.21, p = .002). Besides, a substantial difference was found between the DV with the subject taught and the teachers’ title (p < .001). Post hoc analyses (see Table 5) indicated that CLIL education teachers had higher scores in CFs than all the other content teachers and that professors knew more CFs than the academics who had lower ranks of titles.

Table 5. Multiple Comparison of the Subject Taught and Professional Titles

(I) Subject (J) Subject Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
Education Economics 3.231 .356 .000

 

 
Law 2.933 .363
History 2.752 .404
Literature 3.524 .42
Science 3.611 .49
(I) Professional Title (I) Professional Title
Professor Teaching Assistant 2.217 .460 .000

 
Lecturer 1.844 .372
Associate Professor 2.277 .409

 Interpersonal and Collaborative Competence

Multifaceted statistical differences were found in this section between the DV with the IVs except for the language taught and the highest degree (see Appendix). T-tests revealed female teachers, 985 and/or 211 university teachers and proficient teachers had much higher scores than their counterparts, namely male teachers, non-985/211 HEP teachers and novice teachers. Statisticsal differences were also found in ANOVA analyses regarding the subject taught, educational background and professional title. Post hoc analyses (see Table 6) first showed multiple differences amongst the subjects taught in CLIL, and some teachers (e.g. law teachers) were less cooperative than the others. Besides, the CLIL teachers of a language-related educational background were less capable of interpersonal and collaborative work than those whose educational background was related to either the content subjects or a mix of language and content. Last, it was interesting to note that teaching assistants and lecturers had greater ICC than associate professors and professors.

Table 6. Multiple Comparisons of the Subject Taught, Educational Background and Professional Title

(I) Subject (J) Subject Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
Economics Law 1.750 .413 .000
History -1.492 .470 .021
Law Education -1.323 .456 .047
History -3.242 .477 .000
Literature -1.462 .499 .043
Science -3.121 .591 .000
Education History -1.919 .508 .003
Science -1.798 .616 .045
History Literature 1.779 .547 .017
(I) Educational Background (J) Educational Background
Language-related Content-related -1.670 .344 .000
Both language and content-related -1.821 .397
(I) Professional Title (J) Professional Title
Teaching Assistant Associate Professor 3.381 .393 .000

 
Professor 3.294 .426
Lecturer Associate Professor 3.002 .304
Professor 2.915 .345

 Reflective and Developmental Competence

Except for the participants’ diverse educational backgrounds, statistical differences in inferential analyses were detected in all the other variables (see Appendix). T-tests firstly presented that male teachers, CLIL English teachers, 985 and/211 university teachers, teachers having a doctorate and proficient teachers had much higher RDC than their counterparts, namely female teachers, LOTE teachers, non-985/211 HEP teachers, teachers having a master’s degree and novice teachers. ANOVA tests disclosed statistical differences in terms of the subject taught (p = .001) and professional title (p < .001). Post hoc analyses (see Table 7) indicated significant differences between education teachers with economics teachers, law teachers, history teachers and literature teachers, and between professors with teaching assistants, lecturers and associate professors.

Table 7. Multiple Comparisons of the Subject Taught and Professional Title

(I) Subject (J) Subject Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
Education Economics 3.182 .578 .000

 

 
Law 2.547 .588
History 3.410 .655
Literature 3.335 .682
(I) Professional Title (J) Professional Title
Professor Teaching Assistant 3.643 .731 .000

 
Lecturer 3.185 .711
Associate Professor 3.730 .706

Summary of Findings and Discussion

First, the above statistics indicated the participants’ affiliation played a significant role in their LC, CC, ICC and RDC in CLIL, with those employed in key universities more competent than the others working at ordinary HEPs. This is a context-specific finding due to China’s higher educational structures, which divide HEPs into various layers (Gu et al., 2018). It is worth noting that when HEPs at the top layers, which are normally top universities or 985 and/or 211 universities, receive more support (e.g. government funding) than ordinary HEPs at the bottom layers to improve teaching quality, enhance academic reputation and expand academic research, chances are that educational resources are unequally distributed, widening the gap between the HEPs at different levels (Chiang et al., 2015). The effect of such a dichotomous educational system on CLIL teachers’ competencies can be the same, as Espinar and Ramos’s (2020) study, though conducted in a different context, reveals that in-service teachers can be unequally trained, supported or prepared for delivering CLIL lessons due to the different administrative processes. In this vein, special attention must be paid to CLIL teachers who work at ordinary HEPs and may receive less professional support than those working in prestigious ones.

Another interesting finding was that the participants who had a master’s degree were less capable than those who had completed a doctorate, and specifically, the latter might have a sounder mastery over the content knowledge taught, a deeper understanding of CLIL-related theories and more commitment to lifelong learning and research than the former. Unfortunately, due to the research gap in CLIL teachers’ professional development (Banegas & Hemmi, 2021), no comparable findings from previous studies can as yet be found, though it seems to be a fait accompli that the higher degree a teacher has, the abler they are owing to the advanced education that has “improve(d) themselves academically and contribute(d) to their professional knowledge” of the subjects being taught, curriculum development, pedagogical instructions and professional development (Çal??o?lu & Yalvaç, 2019, p. 101). From an evidence-based perspective, this study confirms this view and brings forward the issue that some teachers, especially those who are not academically competitive enough, may need more support in delivering CLIL programmes.

Against the backdrop that LOTE education is deemphasised in CLIL in China (Hu, 2021), this study presents that LOTE teachers were less capable than English teachers in various CLIL aspects (e.g. CC, PC, CFs, RDC). This reflects the general picture that “the role of ‘global Englishes’…has led to the marginalising of LOTE contexts” in CLIL (Coyle & Meyer, 2021, p. 8) and that although multilingual education has been promoted in China, more should have been done at the governmental and institutional levels to support LOTE teachers’ professional development in the same way as how English teachers have been supported (Chen et al., 2020). Given the dual-focused nature of CLIL, the differences between CLIL teachers’ competencies with the subjects they taught were also investigated, which showed no significant difference in LC, CC and PC but in CFs, ICC and RDC. This confirms that the subjects taught can affect CLIL teachers’ competencies, just as the case reported by Custodio-Espinar (2019) that teachers of different subjects have disparate levels of professional competencies in organising CLIL programmes. This overall situation, on the one hand, reflects China’s endeavour to promote high-quality discipline construction, and Zhao and Dixon’s (2017, p. 11) work has confirmed this as evinced in the professional support offered to Chinese university and college teachers to ensure they possess high language proficiency, “good content knowledge, content pedagogical knowledge and also pedagogical knowledge for language teaching”. On the other hand, the disparities in certain competencies among different subject teachers reflect the criticism that the unequal support for the construction of different disciplines in China’s higher education system may cause segmentation between more favoured subjects with less favoured ones (Lo & Pan, 2021). It should also be mentioned that different educational backgrounds may also influence CLIL competencies, as the study demonstrated in a much commonsensical way that the teachers having a language-based educational background were more confident in teaching and using the TLs than those having a mixed or content-oriented educational background. Inevitably, many CLIL teachers are either language-driven or content-driven, and few of them may have received dual-focused teacher education specifically designed for CLIL (Lo, 2020), which justifies that they normally have divergent capabilities and perceptions of implementing CLIL (Villabona & Cenoz, 2021). This situation, along with the ones reflected by the findings about the languages and subjects being taught, sheds light on the need to unite language and subject educators of various fields to establish “not only a shared understanding of known practices but also a co-construction of new integrated pathways to guide meaning making through connecting language domains” and content domains (Coyle & Meyer, 2021, p. 8).

The last point to note is the findings about the participants’ gender, years of teaching and professional titles. First, gender was of little effect on the participants’ self-assessment of competencies. Nevertheless, female CLIL teachers were more willing to participate in interpersonal and collaborative work with others than male teachers who, in comparison, engaged more in reflective and developmental practices than their female counterparts. No comparable findings from previous research can be found to confirm or disconfirm this idea, while the ones of the research placed in a broader educational context do have illustrated that Chinese female teachers tend to be more interactive and enthusiastic about professional collaboration (Liang & Zhou, 2016) but less competent at lifelong learning and research, which is the essential indicator of RDC, than male teachers (Zhu & He, 2014). The reasons lying behind this are complicated and largely related to teacher identity discourses influenced by micro, meso and macro factors within a somewhat asymmetrical gender system in China (Luk-Fong, 2013). Thus, they will not be discussed in this text. Furthermore, the years of CLIL teaching also had little effect on the teachers’ competencies, but CC, ICC and RDC were subject to this variable with proficient teachers gaining an upper hand over novice teachers. This reflects Bier’s (2016) research finding that experienced teachers usually have a deeper understanding of CLIL and thus are more skilled than inexperienced teachers. Regarding the professional titles, teaching assistants had less PC than other academics of higher ranks, such as lecturers and associate professors; professors knew more CFs and were more involved in reflective and developmental work than other academics. This may sound commonsensical in the Chinese context, as an academic must have a thorough mastery of the basic theories of their branch of learning and superior “competence in education, teaching and research” to gain a higher academic title (Gu et al., 2018, p. 195). Still, it is surprising to find that teaching assistants and lecturers were more inclined to partake in interpersonal and collaborative work than associate professors and professors. This raises an interesting phenomenon in the field of CLIL. These findings correspond to the previous ones that the teaching experience gained over time and the types of teacher positions can indeed influence CLIL teachers’ professional practices and abilities (Campillo-Ferrer et al., 2020) and reject the assumptions that they may not necessarily explain teachers’ professional development (Skinnari & Bovellan, 2016).

The description and discussion of the heterogeneity of Chinese CLIL teachers’ profiles of professional competencies have mirrored the inevitable “gap between who CLIL teachers are and what ideal CLIL teachers need” (Lo, 2020, p. 21) and disclosed the complex challenges confronting them. It seems to be a consensus that CLIL is a “linguistic and cognitive challenge” (Bier, 2016, p. 396) or a psychological and pedagogical challenge (Lo, 2020) for teachers, while these views can be too simplistic to be linked with the dynamically interwoven CLIL competencies. Thus, given the research findings and the special higher educational context in China, it is proposed at the end of this paper that the challenges faced by Chinese CLIL teachers are related to micro, meso and macro factors. The micro factors are concerned with teachers themselves, such as gender, educational background and teaching experience; the meso factors (e.g. the languages and subjects taught, professional titles) are identified with the context-specific features at an institutional level; the macro factors are placed in a more general social context and normally associated with the regional and even national education moves or policies. They are interwoven with each other, challenge a CLIL teacher’s agency and influence their competencies. However, the recognition of these factors can help to better identify CLIL teachers’ professional growth needs, devise appropriate ways to improve their competencies and finally contribute to successful CLIL.

Conclusion

Regardless of the limitation that a non-probability sampling technique was adopted and thus prevented the researcher from generalising the findings to a wider population, the study can still be seen as one of the initiatives to bridge the CLIL research gap in the Chinese academia by focusing on teachers’ competencies in implementing this pedagogical approach. The results of the study are multifaceted, and various factors may shape CLIL teachers’ competencies of different types. In the process of professional development, the challenges confronting CLIL teachers can be varied, whether being linguistic, content-related, pedagogical, theoretical, cooperative or reflective. However, the identification of CLIL teachers’ profiles of professional competencies in accordance with the factors studied has underlined the need to establish an ecological milieu and a supportive network, wherein professional collaboration should be embraced among CLIL teachers of different profiles, information and resources should be shared amongst educational institutions, and support should be lent to the teachers who have just embarked upon their CLIL teaching journey. Continuous professional training programmes are essential to achieve this goal. The answer is straightforward: to help teachers better understand CLIL, identify the language and content learning needs, learn effective strategies to design and implement CLIL and become committed to lifelong learning. This can allow teachers to enhance their professional identities and students to reap the benefits of CLIL when teaching practices are effectively grounded in teachers’ exceptional competencies. The goal of the research is to open up new ways for keeping alive the sustainability of CLIL. To this end, ongoing research into teacher training needs is also a must, requiring Chinese researchers and scholars to endeavour to explore CLIL teachers’ dynamic agency in the long way ahead.

Note

  1. 985 and 211 mean Project 985 and Project 211 respectively, which are national projects initiated by the Chinese government to promote the development and reputation of Chinese HEPs and found world-class universities (Gu et al., 2018). It is believed that a 985 and/or 211 university is usually better than a non-985/211 HEP due to a higher admission threshold, more government support and larger educational resources (Lo & Pan, 2021).

Acknowledgement

Special thanks are extended to the participants of the study.

 

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Appendix: The Compilation of T-Tests and ANOVA Statisticss

LC CC PC
IV M SD Statistics Sig. M SD Statistics Sig. M SD Statistics Sig.
Gender Female 17.78 4.049 t = -1.461 .146 8.93 .667 t = -1.123 .263 32.48 2.518 t = 1.284 .201
Male 18.59 3.882 9.05 .925 31.98 3.007
Language taught English 18.09 3.928 t = -.347 .729 9.05 .818 t = 2.195 .029 35.98 2.639 t = 3.210 .002
LOTE 18.33 4.217 8.76 .673 29.43 2.880
Subject taught Economics 18.41 4.239 F = 2.101 .067 8.76 .619 F = 1.999 .080 31.63 3.206 F = 1.305

 

 .271
Law 19.26 3.511 9.06 .818 32.09 2.234
Education 18.11 3.886 8.83 .568 32.11 2.447
History 16.60 3.645 9.13 .629 33.23 2.812
Literature 17.15 3.695 9.23 1.306 32.69 2.695
Science 18.63 4.978 9.13 .719 32.50 2.989
Affiliation Non-985/211 HEPs 17.35 3.895 t = -3.119 .002 8.84 .654 t = -2.422 .016 32.04 2.772 t = -1.034 .302
985 and/or 211 universities 19.05 3.910 9.11 .885 32.44 2.740
Highest level of degree Doctoral degree 17.91 4.001 t = -1.156 .249 9.13 .830 t = 3.587 .000 32.49 2.667 t = 1.667 .097
Master’s degree 18.58 3.946 8.72 .655 31.82 2.879
Educational background Language-related 19.04 3.844 F = 5.562 .004 8.88 .649 F = 2.195 .114 31.94 2.716 F = 1.377 .255
Content-related 17.31 3.771 9.07 .998 32.62 2.703
Both language and content-related 17.10 4.223 9.15 .770 32.50 2.909
Years of teaching CLIL Novice 17.50 3.986 t = -2.539 .012 8.84 .661 t = -2.431 .016 32.02 2.740 t = -1.112 .268
Proficient 18.90 3.869 9.11 .878 32.45 2.766
Professional title Teaching Assistant 18.32 4.182 F = 2.916 .35 8.77 .717 F = 2.122 .103 30.90 3.134 F = 4.875 .003
Lecturer 17.25 4.061 9.15 .953 32.80 2.713
Associate Professor 18.92 3.862 8.86 .693 32.61 2.401
Professor 19.11 3.428 8.94 .416 31.57 2.547

 
CFs ICC RDC
IV M SD Statistics Sig. M SD Statistics Sig. M SD Statistics Sig.
Gender Female 10.04 2.055 t = 1.303 .194 9.14 2.321 t = 2.691 .008 11.22 2.415 t = -2.477 .017
Male 9.68 1.951 8.29 2.180 12.20 3.249
Language taught English 10.06 2.083 t = 2.476 .014 8.66 2.292 t = -1.112 .267 11.91 3.078 t = 3.113 .002
LOTE 9.24 1.608 9.09 2.288 10.83 1.691
Subject taught Economics 9.25 1.787 F = 22.860 .000 8.94 2.275 F = 11.624 .000 10.96 1.876 F = 4.757

 

 .001
Law 9.55 1.909 7.19 1.740 11.60 2.849
Education 12.49 1.067 8.51 2.525 14.14 4.131
History 9.73 1.258 10.43 1.524 10.73 1.660
Literature 8.96 1.280 8.65 2.097 10.81 1.266
Science 8.88 2.187 10.31 1.580 11.88 2.964
Affiliation Non-985/211 HEPs 9.71 1.973 t = -1.134 .258 8.02 2.248 t = -4.510 .000 10.84 1.719 t = -4.172 .000
985 and/or 211 universities 10.03 2.043 9.40 2.139 12.39 3.421
Highest level of degree Doctoral degree 10.20 2.092 t = 3.214 .002 8.98 2.253 t = 1.956 .052 12.11 3.226 t = 3.636 .000
Master’s degree 9.28 1.713 8.33 2.320 10.85 1.758
Educational background Language-related 9.73 2.054 F = 1.315 .265 7.90 2.240 F = 16.931 .000 11.17 2.240 F = 1.327 .353
Content-related 9.66 1.879 9.57 2.061 11.32 2.061
Both language and content-related 9.08 1.716 9.73 1.935 11.20 2.233
Years of teaching CLIL Novice 9.72 2.008 t = -1.013 .312 8.00 2.267 t = -4.562 .000 10.81 1.706 t = -4.114 .000
Proficient 10.01 2.016 9.40 2.120 12.40 3.396
Professional Title Teaching Assistant 10.04 2.055 t = 1.303 .194 10.32 1.301 F = 52.828 .000 10.87 1.765 F = 9.622

 

 .000
Lecturer 9.68 1.951 9.94 1.884 11.33 2.495
Associate Professor 10.06 2.083 6.94 1.714 10.78 1.803
Professor 9.24 1.608 7.03 1.654 14.51 3.899

 

 

Imagine, Integrate, and Incorporate: English Language and its Pedagogical Implications in EFL Classrooms

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1.5K views

Sohaib Alam
Assistant Professor, Dept. of English, College of Sciences and Humanities, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al kharj, Saudi Arabia. ORCID: 0000-0002-9972-9357Email: s.alam@psau.edu.sa

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 2, April-June, 2022, Pages  https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n2.10

First published: June 19, 2022 | Area: EFL Studies | License: CC BY-NC 4.0

(This article is published under Volume 14, Number2, 2022)
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Imagine, Integrate, and Incorporate: English Language and its Pedagogical Implications in EFL Classrooms

Abstract

As the English language is accepted globally, it becomes a challenge for the teachers to learn the new theories and practices and get updated as per the requirements and needs of the learners. It is very necessary to know the needs of the learners in order to help them or push them towards learning. Knowing your learners’ needs means half of the work has been done, the only thing the teacher has to do is to select the methods and apply the appropriate strategies in the classrooms. The existing practice of teaching English in the classroom does not offer much to the students to practice receptive and productive skills in real-life situations. The present study focus on developing language skills by using different strategies and activities in real-life classroom situation to enhance the language skills of the learners. The study uses a quantitative method to collect data from the respondents through a questionnaire developed by the researcher. The questionnaire was based on a five-point Likert scale and the reliability and validity were tested through SPSS version 20. The Cronbach alpha was tested and the results were satisfactory. The findings of the study clearly show that if the strategies and method of pedagogy in the classroom will be changed to more learners-centred and activity-based, the learning outcomes will be better and language skills were enhanced.

Keywords: Pedagogy, Receptive skills, productive skills, language learning activities, Incorporation

Introduction

English is spoken all over the world and English language teaching and learning is one of the most fascinating as well as challenging tasks for the pedagogues as well as for the learners. As the English language has spread and travelled across the world it has changed its colour and form. Different people have accepted and used the English language as their second language or foreign language to convey their opinions, values, thoughts, and feelings. The power of the English language can be seen as most of the textbooks which are available in this world irrespective of the field they have existed in English language and if not it is translated into it. The English language is considered the lingua franca of our country, spoken by the majority of the people. It is the means of employability in each and every sector. A person who is fluent in the English language can get a job very easier. Now a day it is the minimum requirement of almost every job. The uniqueness of the English language lies in its diversified nature as wherever it goes it changes its structures and function. The emergence of the English language as a global language is an example of how it is quickly reached and accepted by the people. The most important point of the English language is the flexibility to adjust to the native language.

Learning a language whether it is second or foreign is indeed a very complex process. It needs special care, effort, and calibre to master that language because there is always mother tongue intervention when you learn a language. Shinsuke Tsuchiya (2016) discussed the other important distinction which is the dichotomy between native and non-native speakers. He further explains the idea by acknowledging the diversity of speech and practices in different ethnic communities in the world. However, this is the fact that non-native speakers have not been hired or given opportunities over native speakers irrespective of the truth that whether they are more effective or not. Because sometimes the problem of mutual intelligibility also occur when it comes to second language classroom specifically in India where a number of diverse mother tongue exists. The author also explains that individuals perceive the notion of native and non-native differently. Tsuchiya opines:

The practice of dichotomizing natives and non-natives as two homogeneous groups is at best misleading. This is because individuals routinely perceive ‘natives’ and ‘non-natives’ differently, depending on a wide variety of factors. These factors include but are not limited to, linguistic ability, educational background, competence in other languages (s), dialect, citizenship, ethnic background, skin colour, and even gender and sexual orientation. One way to deconstruct the dichotomy is to study those who do not fit in the dichotomy through ethnographic studies. Such individuals would include heritage speakers, dialect speakers, and those who are linguistically but not “ethnically” native speakers. (p. 3-4)

Therefore, to develop an effective and efficient model of teaching strategy, activity based on language questions which target to improve productive and receptive skills of English language learning is the foremost pragmatic strategy that can be developed and applied in foreign language classrooms. Language learning has some basic concepts and theories about how language is learnt, acquired, and taught. Behaviourism is basically psychology theory which is concerned with the behaviours of the individual. It has dominated the field of second language acquisition until the end of the 1960s. The approach is focused on the external individual’s environment. Behaviourist says language learning is habit formation, the procedure of linking stimulus and responses. This process is regarded as a learning instrument and has to be reinforced, practised, observed, and corrected. Behaviourists emphasize on imitation of stimulus as a process of learning. The central idea is dependent upon the observation, measurement, and verification of the subject i.e. is a language learner. The principles of the theory rely on observation, repetition, drill practice, and stimulus-response. Naderi, S., Ajmal, M., Keezhatta, M. S., & Alam, S. (2021) write in the paper titled “Stroke Effect of English Teachers on the Learners’ L2 Motivational Self-System”

The interaction between teacher and learner can be considered a fundamental element in the educational context. Hall and Walsh (2002) asserted that the quality of teacher-learner interaction in the language learning contexts is a major factor to have effective and efficient learning and teaching process. Moreover, this kind of interaction has an essential role in progressing a positive learners’ academic development and a social enhancement as well. In fact, the promoted interaction between teachers and learners provides a safe and suitable environment for both learners and teachers. (108)

Language has four skills i.e. LSRW, apart from this it has two aspects also that is vocabulary and grammar. To learn a language or acquire every individual has to learn the rules of the language as well as the vocabulary irrespective of whichever language they are learning. “Teachers believed that the motivation levels of the entire class and of individual students depend highly on the teachers. Technology was perceived as important for today’s classroom by all teachers” (Ajmal et al., p. 543). Universal grammar theory refers to the structure of the certain set of rules which are inherent in humans. The theory has been proposed by Noam Chomsky in 1986, and he argued that humans have the ability to organize limited language constraints in their minds. In addition to, he elaborates that every language in this world has a limited number of similar structure or set of rules that exists in humans naturally. “In certain situations in which the child is not presented with any consistent linguistic model, they appear to have the capacity to invent some aspects of language” (Carroll, p. 42). The above-mentioned statement of David Carroll in his book Psychology of Language supports the notion of Universal grammar. This set of rules is known as Universal grammar and it is also supported by the Creole languages. Aleksander Kobylarek (2020) says “the point of education depended on introducing people to human achievement by creating a certain development continuum” (p. 6).

The aforementioned ideas about language and its aspects of how to learn its nuances to practice in real-life situations are the demand of today’s competitive world. To solve the problem of pedagogues in the classroom teaching the study focus on how to develop a strategy based on activities of the English language and its implementation or integration in real-life classroom teaching.

Literature Review

The present study reviews some of the important articles and books pertinent to the idea of integrating, incorporating and imagining the language skills in the classroom pedagogy. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language Fourth Edition (2014) by Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Donna Brinton, and Marguerite A. Snow accentuates the methods of language teaching comprehensibly, elaborates on how to assess the language skills and its aspects i.e. grammar and vocabulary, and highlights the integrated approaches of ESL and EFL classrooms with providing relevant content.  Additionally, the book focuses on the information about the learners that are relevant for classroom interaction and foreground issues that are important for the professional development of the teachers. The book is a comprehensive demonstration of approaches, methods and techniques to make teachers capable enough to facilitate teaching English as a second or foreign language. It can be used as a reference book or guide for specific training and professional development in academics. The book is a canon of each and every aspect that is important and affects teaching-learning process. It is substantial because each chapter begins with a question that previews the contents of the chapter. It also throws light on key concepts and terminologies that are pertinent to ESL and EFL contexts. Apart from this, the chapters elaborate on conceptual underpinnings (research and theory), followed by classroom implications. The uniqueness of the book is each chapter ends with the future trends and recommendations, a conclusion and summary followed by the discussions, questions, suggested activities, and recommendations for future readings. The suggested materials can be utilized for stimulating critical thinking, application, and exploration.

Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (2000) by Diane Larsen-Freeman is a remarkable contribution to the field of language teaching and learning. The book discusses new methods through more attention to the learning process providing the methodological choice to the teachers. Second Language Pedagogy (1987) by N.S. Prabhu is a landmark book which aims to present a particular view of second language pedagogy through fascinating and exciting procedures and tasks in language teaching. This approach was referred to as the ‘Bangalore Project’ and some called it ‘Communicational Teaching Project’. The project had some very interesting ideas of giving the instruction as tasks, and their implication in the syllabus design is what we have known as ‘procedural syllabus’. Prabhu describes “development of competence in a second language requires not systematization of language inputs or maximization of planned practice, but rather the creation of conditions in which learners engage in an effort to cope with communication” (Prabhu,  p. 1). So what he focused through his idea of communicational approach or procedural approach or task-based language learning is that creating the situation (tasks) is very much important for the production of appropriate linguistic expression.

Approach and Methods in Language Teaching (2001) by Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rogers is a remarkable work which gives us insights into the approach, methods, and techniques of language teaching, split into three parts. The book discusses cooperative language learning, content-based instruction, task-based language teaching and the post-methods era. The book aims to offer an inclusive and lucid description of major and minor movements in language teaching methods from the commencement of the twentieth century to the current times. The aim of the authors is to present a straight and inclusive depiction of a meticulous approach or method.

Blended Learning: Creating Opportunities for Language Learners (2012) by Debra Marsh reflects the blending of learning methods, approaches, and strategies in language learning classrooms. It discusses the incorporation of the pedagogically sound learning materials which support the approach. “Blended learning can refer to any combination of different methods of learning, different learning environments, different learning styles” (Marsh, p. 3).

Sayeh Abdullah’s article “Challenges for Teaching English as a Second Language and their Remedies” (2013) analyses the challenges and barriers to teaching in EFL classrooms. The article discusses the cultural nuances that influence the language learning process which is an important barrier for second language learners. Cognition of new structures and skills is very important among learners; the use of real-life situations can give learners ample experiences to understand. The new words and new expressions should be discussed and explained to learners in order to comprehend them easily. The author defines “it is demanded that the English language teachers must be skilled enough at lowering these barriers and sparking student interest and curiously by developing a creative, wise and passionate curriculum” (Abdullah, p. 371). However, it has been noticed that after decades of teaching English teachers have not achieved what they are supposed to; somehow they are lacking in creativity and experiments; new approaches in their classroom. Teaching the second language has been a difficult assignment, particularly, in working with the students who hail from diverse cultures and backgrounds as it entails a number of intricacies which can be overcome through the application of suitable approaches. The paper focuses on the problems of learners of a second language, mainly, English.

“Drama in Education and its Effectiveness in English Second/Foreign Language Classes” (2004) by L. Athiemoolam address the challenge of using drama in ESL/EFL classrooms and its effectiveness. The article aims to draw attention to the use of creativeness, role play and frozen images as procedures to support the learning process among learners who are learning English. It also focuses on the development of communication skills among English language learners at the school or university level. The author enumerates the usage and application of drama techniques and the invaluable role of drama in developing oral communication. The author emphasizes that drama and theatre develop creativity and confidence among learners, by using creative drama like pantomime, role play, and improvisation. One can stimulate authentic situations in the classroom for the development of the English language.

In “Drama Techniques for Teaching English” (2004) Vani Chauhan discusses the alternative method of teaching English through drama by providing context for language production. The article examines the benefits of using drama in the classroom by asserting that drama empowers the teachers’ repertoire of pedagogic strategies. The author elaborates on the effectiveness of drama in the ESL classroom and demonstrates the warm-up game to trigger the learner’s ability to respond, then describes the drama activities through which teachers can teach the English language. The activities include the interrogative roles, telephonic conversations, and soliloquy. Each activity is very clearly designed and described with follow-up and variations.   The article discusses drama as an alternative method in the EFL classroom which is the primary aim of this study. It strengthens the present study by demonstrating a way how it will be implemented in the second language classroom.

The literature review discusses different methodologies and strategies discussed by the authors to cater for the need of the students in EFL/ESL classroom pedagogy. The limited study discussed above shows that there is a gap between the ideas, strategies, and approaches and their implementation, integration and incorporation. The present study tried to fill the gap in the actual integration of activities and strategies in the real-life classroom pedagogy.

Research Methodology

The research methodology follows a valid and reliable method to collect data through a questionnaire developed by the researcher. The questionnaire was used firstly to conduct a pilot study to know the weakness and strength and implement the changes accordingly. The respondents were chosen by using the purposive method and the entire respondent were studying in an undergraduate program. The questionnaire was based on five-point Likert scale. For the present study, only a few statements related to language teaching will be analysed and try to find out the possible solution related to the classroom pedagogy. The language-based statements are designed to get information about the effectiveness of activities and exercises in language classrooms. The options are ranging from 1 to 5, where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree. The statement-based questions intend to inquire about the usefulness, and effectiveness of the concept of language activities in classroom learning and teaching.

Data Analysis

The first statement in the questionnaire comes under the dimension of language-based and asks “I like activities in the classroom to learn English”. This statement aims to know whether students like activity as a strategy in learning English or whether it has not been added to the curriculum nor practised by teachers. All of the language-based statements are coded as (LB) for tabulation and analysis.

Graph 1

The responses recorded are shown in the Graph 1 above, thirty-two (32) students selected ‘strongly disagree’, forty-eight (48) students selected ‘disagree’, two hundred thirty-two (232) students selected ‘neutral’, four hundred ninety-five (495) students selected ‘agree’, and one hundred ninety-six (196) selected ‘strongly agree’. The responses from the participants are quite positive about using activity as a tool for learning English as it is loud and clear from the table 4.15, that 70%of the respondents marked positively when asked do they like drama activities, exercises, and lessons in the English classroom. However, 23% of the participants responded that they feel neutral or they are okay with the approach whereas only 8% of the students responded negatively. Statistical data for statement one (LB1) shown in graph 15 have received positive responses from the respondents. The kind of responses received for this particular statement gives strength to the present study as it is proposing a new approach to teaching and learning which has not been used earlier or is not generally practised because of end number of reasons by the teachers.

The next statement, based on language skills, asks “drama in the English language classroom makes learning easy”. This particular statement intends to establish the fact whether drama and theatre-based activities are helpful in learning English or it does make the process of learning easy. As it is shown in Graph 2 below, twenty-nine (29) students selected the option ‘strongly disagree’, fifty-six (56) students selected ‘disagree’, and two hundred two (202) students selected ‘neutral’.

Graph 2

The second statement of language-based (LB2) intends to know the opinion of respondents about drama makes learning English easy as a teaching tool, with the presupposition that minimum effort and maximum output can be achieved through drama-based activities. Approximately, 70% of the students responded positively to this statement which means they believe drama will help them to learn the English language easily if it is opted for by the teacher and added to the curriculum by policymakers.

Statement three (LB3) of language-based appears in the questionnaire as statement number fifteen (15). This statement tried to get input from respondents on how effective are language games and role-play in improving their English language. The participants responded to this particular statement, sixteen (16) students chose the option ‘strongly disagree’, thirty-eight (38) chose the option ‘disagree’, one hundred fifty-two (152) chose the option ‘neutral’, five hundred thirty-five (535) chosen ‘agree’, and two hundred sixty-two (262) chosen the option ‘strongly agree’. It is clear from Graph 3 below, that most of the respondents feel that language games and role-play activities in English language classrooms improve the accuracy and fluency of their language skills.

Graph 3

Graph 3 (above) shows that almost eighty (80) per cent of the participants responded positively to this statement whereas only 5.4% responded negatively.

Statement four (LB4) of language-based appears in the questionnaire as statement nineteen (19), which intends to ask about projects, presentations, and assignments. As data shown in Graph 4 below, eighty-three (83) students selected option ‘strongly disagree, eighty-six (86) students selected option ‘disagree’, two hundred fifty-five (255) students selected option ‘neutral’, three hundred forty-six (346) students selected option ‘agree’, and two hundred thirty-three (233) students selected option ‘strongly agree’. It is clear from graph 18, that fifty-eight per cent (58) of the students responded positively to this statement and 16.8% of the students responded negatively. The rest of them responded to the option neutral.

The next statement LB-5 asks activity-based teaching improves the oral skill of the students. It also investigates activities as a tool of learning helpful in developing the pronunciation skills of students.

Graph 4

As it is clear from Graph 5 below, eleven (11) students selected the option ‘strongly disagree’, forty students (40) selected the option ‘disagree’, two hundred and two (202) students selected the option ‘neutral’, four hundred fifty-three (453) selected option ‘agree’, two hundred ninety-seven (297) selected option ‘strongly agree’.

Graph 5

The next statement based on language is LB 6 which asks about opportunities students are having in their everyday life. This particular statement intends to ask how frequently they speak English outside the classroom. Practising linguistic structure as much as possible develops the language skills of students.

Graph 6

The response recorded after tabulation of data reveals, twenty-nine (29) students responded ‘strongly disagree’, sixty-one (61) students responded ‘disagree’, one hundred ninety-three (193) students responded ‘neutral’, four hundred thirty-eight (438) responded ‘ agree’, two hundred eighty-two (282) responded ‘strongly agree’. It is clear from Graph 6 above, almost seventy-two (72) per cent of the students responded positively to the statement whereas nine (9) per cent of the students responded negatively.

If respondents who marked option ‘neutral’ for example taken as they do not have opportunities or least opportunity to use English in their daily life then a large number of students are not using English or do not get the opportunity to use it in their day to day communication. The reason can be different for every individual, maybe they are shy and hesitate to communicate in English because they think others might point out their mistakes and make fun. The other reason for not using it is that they are not able to produce appropriate linguistic structures of language, lack of vocabulary, lack of motivation and so on.

The next statement in this segment is that LB7 intends to ask how English can be learnt by putting minimum effort for maximum output with the help of drama techniques.

Graph 7

The response recorded after tabulation of data reveals, that thirty-five (35) students selected option ‘strongly disagree’, eighty-nine (89) students selected option ‘disagree’, two hundred eighty-nine (289) students selected option ‘neutral’, four hundred twenty-one (421) selected option ‘agree’, and one hundred seventy-three (173) selected the option ‘strongly agree’. It is clear from Graph 7 below, total of 12.45% students responded negatively to this statement whereas sixty (60) per cent of the students approximately responded positively to this statement.

Most of the participants believe that English can be learnt with minimum effort through the use of drama and theatre as a tool for learning. The approach of using drama as an instructional method in second language classrooms gives motivation and makes the learning process easier.

The next statement of language-based is LB8 intends to ask about word games and puzzles help to improve vocabulary. The response recorded after tabulation of data shows that sixteen (16) students selected option ‘strongly disagree’, thirty-five (35) students selected option ‘disagree’, one hundred fifty-two (152) students selected option ‘neutral’, five hundred five (505) students selected the option ‘agree’, and two hundred ninety-five (295) students selected option ‘strongly agree’.

Graph 8

It has been observed by several teachers and scholars that students especially at the undergraduate level face difficulties in speaking and writing because they do not have enough vocabulary to express their thoughts and feelings. Even when writing descriptive answers in exams they keep on repeating the same expressions. This technique of using word games in the classroom does help them to improve their vocabulary and will directly develop their oral and written skills in the English language. As you can see in graph 8 above, only five (5) per cent of students responded negatively to this statement whereas eighty (80) per cent of the students responded positively. In this regard, there is a need for enhancing the vocabulary of the students at the undergraduate level and working with word games can be an essential strategy to develop their vocabulary.

The last statement LB9 investigates the effectiveness of the approach of using drama activities in language teaching classrooms. The responses recorded were: twenty-two (22) students selected the option ‘strongly disagree’, thirty-eight (38) students selected the option ‘disagree’, one hundred forty-four (144) students selected ‘neutral’, four hundred seventy-five (475) students selected the option ‘agree’, and three hundred twenty-four (324) students selected the option ‘strongly agree’. As it is clear from graph 23 (below), six (6) per cent of the students responded to this statement negatively whereas eighty (80) per cent of the students responded positively. 14.5% of the students responded neutrally.

Graph 9

Inferences and Findings of the Study

The findings of the present study are discussed in the form of inferences made by analysing the data which were collected through the questionnaire. There are discussed below:

The researcher found that the use of unscripted activities i.e. extended role play develops cooperative learning, group work and pair work among students. Apart from these, it was observed that students often feel boredom in the classroom if the teacher is not using interactive methodologies but these drama-based activities make the learning interesting and useful for the overall improvement of the personality and language of students. Traditional methodologies do not offer an interactive teaching style which is why students are unable to perform well when asked inside and outside the Indian classroom. These activities are the easiest way to make the learning of English language effective as it stimulates motivation among learners. The majority of students responded that while indulging in drama-based activities they are able to interact actively and effectively without any pressure. Furthermore, the efficacious nature of the activities can be seen as it develops the imagination of the students because the activities are designed in a way that promotes the student’s involvement in the classroom and gives them autonomy to learn the English language. The teacher’s role is to be a torch bearer in the classroom.

It was noticed through the responses recorded that language games facilitate students to learn new linguistic expressions and it is easily available through the Android platform on mobiles. Students find language games easily accessible to them and they can utilize them for their language improvement. A number of language games are available for vocabulary building and grammar improvement online and offline. The comprehensible finding suggests that these language games enhance confidence and creativity as they are not redundant but rather spontaneous in nature.

It was found that using non-verbal activities in the classroom improves the body language of the students. These activities improve the kinaesthetic skills of the students i.e. how to interact with others without using words or sentences through gestures and postures. It is an effective strategy for teaching the English language in the second language classroom. Moreover, it also develops the mutual intelligibility of the students. Leo Jones (2007) says:

In student-centred classes, students don’t depend on their teacher all the time, waiting for instructions, words of approval, correction, advice, or praise. They don’t ignore each other, but look at each other and communicate with each other. They value each other’s contributions; they cooperate, learn from each other, and help each other. When in difficulty or in doubt, they do ask the teacher for help or advice but only after they have tried to solve the problem among themselves. The emphasis is on working together, in pairs, in groups, and as a whole class. Their teacher helps them to develop their language skills. (p. 1)

One of the major findings that were perceived through the responses of the students is that they do not rely on reading authentic materials rather than they prefer to read sub-standard market materials that are easy to read in order to pass their examinations. Most of the students responded that they use online content as their reading materials, and very few students responded that they regularly read newspapers and magazines. The English Language has four skills and two aspects that have to be practised to be a fluent and accurate writer or speaker reading and listening serve as the input of the language that goes into the subconscious mind of individuals. Speaking and writing are the output of the language without input the desired output is not possible. Apart from these input and output skills, it is important to inculcate the aspects of language, i.e. grammar and vocabulary. Drama as an instructional approach is potent enough to foster these skills and aspects in a holistic teaching strategy.

This approach gives a kind of training of pronunciation to the students as it uses ICT and audio-visual materials if available. Using this method the teacher’s role is to act as a guide and supervise the activity by giving appropriate feedback wherever needed. Sometimes if the infrastructure is available audio-video materials are used for ice-breaking or warm-up activities to push students toward the learning process. Moreover, Alan Maley and Alan Duff’s (2013) book titled “Drama techniques in language learning” is an important resource book for activities that can be used in EFL classroom pedagogy. The data reveals and the researcher also believes that the use of multimedia materials gives students a kind of training so that they can listen and see to imitate the language structures and supra-segmental features in a real-life situation. Aleksander Kobylarek (2021) says that “education practices to be appropriate, knowledge about education must have a solid foundation” (p. 9)

It is observed that this approach gives the opportunity to the students to use the English language inside and trains them to use it outside with confidence. In the Indian context, students have very little or no exposure in using the English language in their everyday life. Even in some cases, students do not have exposure to listening to the native speaker to imitate them to learn the exact pronunciation. The findings conclude that this approach is very helpful in learning English as it is cost-effective, efficient, and can be used without any infrastructure in open spaces.

It was noticed and the majority of the respondents said that traditional chalk and lecture teaching methods are one-dimensional way and do not promote students’ involvement, participation, autonomy, and freedom whereas learning the English language in a second language context should be two-way communicative act, should be thought-provoking, exchanging ideas, and should allow students to engage and participate in the classroom. Drama as a strategy for teaching the English language initiates the learning process which traditional methods do not support. Even the errors are not welcomed in traditional teaching practices which Stephen Pit Corder said is very significant for a beginner.

It was pointed out that the researcher firmly believes that drama as a method of teaching motivates learners to practise the English language inside and outside the classroom. Traditional teaching styles do not offer ample motivation and they minimize the hesitation of the students because of the lecture method which students often find boring. It was observed that students feel connected to the idea of using drama and they actively interact in the classroom with a result, they gradually use the English language more. They also find it very interesting to practice language structures through assigned roles. Alam, S., Al-Hawamdeh, B. O. S., Ghani, M. U., & Keezhatta, M. S. accentuates:

The use of activities based on drama in education is efficacious in developing the creativity and critical skills of the learners. It is also helpful in fostering the non-verbal skills of learners in real-life situations. Additionally, if the approach is used in the right way it can have a positive impact on the learning outcomes of the students in ESL and EFL classrooms. The challenge is to devise the activities according to the classroom nature and the level of the students (p. 40).

It was noticed that the reverberation of the linguistic expression in the classroom enhances the personal, social, and cultural values among learners. The activities developed and designed for classroom teaching purposes are improvised from real-life situations and that is why the students feel it is important to practice and subscribe to the idea of enacting those situations in the classroom. In the process of acting out the expressions, they inculcate the social etiquette, values, courtesy, manners, decorum, protocol, and politeness. This leads to the understanding that drama is not only helpful in teaching the English language but also effective in the overall personality development of students.

Conclusion

As discussed above it is clear that the activities based teaching is far more effective than the traditional method of direct teaching. The learners are quite comfortable and not reluctant to use language in real-life situations because these strategies give them a king of training and practice of receptive and productive skills. The efficacies of the activities are visible when learners had been asked how they feel about it. The only problem that is faced by pedagogues around the world is that suitable activity according to individual classrooms nature is not available. Also, Aleksander Kobylarek (2021) points out that “low digital skills of teachers became a cause of problem when it comes teaching with the help of technology” (p. 6). In this regard study conducted by Alam et al. (2020); Alam et al. (2022); Al-hawamdeh, B. O. S., Alam, S (2022), Process Drama as a Method of Pedagogy in ESL Classrooms: Articulating the Inarticulate, Practice and Principle of Blended Learning in ESL/EFL Pedagogy: Strategies, Techniques and Challenges, Praxis and Effectiveness of Pedagogy during Pandemic: An Investigation of Learners’ Perspective is beneficial because they discuss some sample activities in their study. Either the teacher has to devise the activity according to the nature of the classroom or do some changes accordingly. The article also discusses the importance of blended learning, challenges and problems teachers face in the real classroom pedagogy. The limitation of the study is that it is conducted on a small sample size of only undergraduates and for policy making and changing the syllabus and curriculum there is a need for huge data and support from the agencies and government.

Acknowledgement

This publication was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia.

References

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Alam. S, Karim, M. R., & Ahmad, F.  (2020). Process Drama as a Method of Pedagogy in ESL Classrooms: Articulating the Inarticulate. Journal of Education Culture and Society, 11(1), 255–272. https://doi.org/10.15503/jecs2020.1.255.272

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A Survey of Using YouTube as Supplementary Material with University English Language Learners in Vietnam: A Replication Study

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Pham Minh Huy1, John R. Baker2 & Nhi Khanh Tran3

1 Creative Language Center, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Email: tg_phamminhhuy@tdtu.edu.vn. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7174-3392

2Faculty of Foreign Languages, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Email: drjohnrbaker@tdtu.edu.vn. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3379

3 Faculty of Foreign Languages, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Email: trankhanhnhi@tdtu.edu.vn. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4833-8073

Volume 13, Number 4, 2021 I Full-Text PDF

DOI: 10.21659/rupkatha.v13n4.58 

Abstract

There is a growing body of international literature that has shown positive student perceptions of using YouTube as a source of supplementary teaching and learning material. The literature further shows that YouTube use in Vietnamese educational settings is growing. However, empirical investigations in this region are lacking. As such, the question arises whether international studies’ results may be generalizable to this context. However, no replication studies have been undertaken to explore this. This mixed-methods external approximate replication of the seminal work in this field (Kelsen, 2009) was conducted to address this gap. The triangulated results (descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, qualitative interpretation) demonstrated that the current study showed markedly more positive perceptions than the initial study. Following this, it is suggested that, while the initial study is historically important, generalizability may not be transferable to the current Vietnamese context. It is further suggested the current study’s results are employed as a reference for this context and a starting point for future investigations and discussions. The results’ relevancy to the broader Asian context and suggestions for further study are also discussed.

Keywords: YouTube, EFL, ESL, ELL, language learning, Z Generation, ICT, Replication, Kelsen, Supplementary resources

Exploring the Effects of Blended Learning using WhatsApp on Language Learners’ Lexical Competence

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314 views

Divya Jyot Kaur1, Dr. Niraja Saraswat2 & Dr. Irum Alvi3

1Research Scholar, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Jaipur, 302017, Rajasthan, India. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-6358-9364. E-mail: divyajyotdjk@gmail.com

2Assistant Prof., Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Jaipur, 302017, Rajasthan, India. ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6998-6144. E-mail: niraja.hum@mnit.ac.in

3Assistant Prof., Department of Humanities, English and Applied Sciences (HEAS), Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, 324022, Rajasthan, India. ORCID ID: 0000-0001-9509-6225. E-mail: irumalvi@gmail.com

Volume 13, Number 4, 2021 I Full-Text PDF

DOI: 10.21659/rupkatha.v13n4.60 

Abstract

In the wake of COVID-19, online learning has achieved new dimensions and affected all fields of education. As such, one of the emerging fields of ELT is Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL). The proposed study adapts the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to identify factors influencing students’ behavioral intention towards WhatsApp for enhancing lexical competence. Three constructs, namely, performance expectancy, social influence, & hedonic motivation, are adopted from the original model, and two new constructs: perceived relevance and collaborative learning are added. A questionnaire was administered to 203 undergraduate students from select Institutes in Rajasthan. Smart-PLS (ver. 3.2.9) and IBM SPSS (ver. 26) are used for data analysis. Empirical testing confirms the significant relationship of social influence (?=.274, p=.002), hedonic motivation (?=0.639, p=.000), and perceived relevance (?=0.138, p=.035) with the behavioral intention to use WhatsApp for enhancing lexical competence; and performance expectancy and collaborative learning are proved as insignificant predictors of behavioral intention. The findings should aid decision-makers in developing ELT practices and teachers in opting for innovative approaches for the benefit of language learners. The originality of the study stems from the inclusion of external factors in the UTAUT model. The ramifications for MALL theory and practice have been examined in light of these findings.

Keywords: WhatsApp, Lexical competence, UTAUT, MALL, ELT, COVID-19.

English Speaking Skill and Indian Undergraduate ESL Learners: Interleaving or Block Practice?

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368 views

Sujata Kakoti1, Sarat Kumar Doley2

1PhD Scholar, Dept of English, Tezpur University,sujata7980@gmail.com

2Asst. Prof, Dept of English, Tezpur University, dolesar@tezu.ernet.in

Volume 13, Number 4, 2021 I Full-Text PDF

DOI: 10.21659/rupkatha.v13n4.57   

Abstract

Recent studies showed that compared to practicing language skills in A stepwise manner over a period known as block practice, mixing the units of learning, and making them less predictable by presenting them randomly to the language learners, known as interleaving, may prove to be a more effective approach to language teaching (Finkbeiner&Nicol, 2003; Schneider et al., 1998, 2002; Miles, 2014; Nakata, 2015). This paper is an attempt at reporting the findings of a 24-day long experimental study on the pedagogical effect of the interleaving and block practice approach to language learning (speaking skill in the present context) on undergraduate English as a second (ESL) learner. The teaching experimentation was done online on 36 undergraduate learner participants at the School of Sciences in Tezpur University during the Autumn Semester, 2020-21. The interleaving group showed slightly better language pedagogical results in speaking skills in English than the block practice group. It is, however, stated that the difference in performance was not found to be statistically significant. The performance of the two groups across the four micro-skills of speaking in English identified as interaction, pronunciation, fluency & coherence, and vocabulary & grammar remained static within the duration of the experimentation. Additionally, the groups did not demonstrate any significant difference in their L2 attitude and motivation over time.

Keywords: Interleaving; Block Practice; ESL; Speaking Skill; Attitude; Motivation; Language Pedagogy.

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