Film & Media Studies

Savage Desires: Afghanistan as a Site for Othering in Dharmatma and Khuda Gawah

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Marjuque Ul Haque  
Independent Researcher, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 16, Issue 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.05g
[Article History: Received: 06 March 2023. Revised: 05 March 2024. Accepted: 06 March 2024. Published: 06 March 2024]
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Abstract

This paper aims to explore how Afghanistan is represented in two mainstream Bollywood films from the pre-9/11 period using Orientalism as a theoretical framework. While much literature exists on Afghanistan being Orientalized in Hollywood films, Bollywood representations of Afghanistan have not been studied from similar critical lenses. With the recent takeover of Afghanistan by the Taliban after a twenty-year-long war, it is more urgent than ever today to examine Bollywood representations of Afghanistan given the crucial importance of India as a key geopolitical entity in the region. The paper shall study two films from the pre-9/11 period in order to understand if Bollywood has Orientalized the region like mainstream Hollywood films. Bollywood films well known for taking their influences from Hollywood productions, make it likely to be the case.

Keywords: Afghanistan, Noble Savage, Orientalism, Othering, Bollywood, Hollywood, Dharmatma, Khuda Gawah, 9/11, US Media.

Sustainable Development Goals: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions

Citation: Haque, M. U. (2024). Savage Desires: Afghanistan as a Site for Othering in Dharmatma and Khuda Gawah. Rupkatha Journal 16:1. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.05g 

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The Unconscious as Cinematographic Form: A Psychoanalytic Reading of Inception

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Deniz Çelik1*   & Tugba Elmaci2  
1Research Scholar, Media and Cultural Studies (Interdisciplinary) Programme, The Faculty of Communication, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, PA 17020: Turkey. Corresponding Author.
2Associate Professor, the Chair of the Department of Radio, Cinema and Television, The Faculty of Communication, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, PA 17020, Turkey.

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 16, Issue 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.04g
[Article History: Received: 14 January 2024. Revised: 11 February 2024. Accepted: 24 February 2024. Published: 06 March 2024]
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Abstract

Freud’s “unconscious,” a lauded seminal psychological contribution, has transitioned into an efficacious narrative device in cinema, evolving into a paradigmatic relationship. This article scrutinizes Inception (2010), a quintessential psychoanalytical film written and directed by Christopher Nolan. It explicates the director’s linkage to psychoanalysis and reveals how he demystifies the unconscious through its utilization both as a cinematic form and thematic device, manifested in discernible dream layers. It is ascertained that these layers perform a bifunctional role as cinematic and narrative elements. Intriguingly, this multifaceted structure extends to character development as well, exploiting the complexities of the characters’ pathologies. Since the filmic structure leverages the pathologies exhibited by the characters, they constitute secondary data for the analysis. The pathologies are aligned with the mental disorder classifications the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TRTM) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Pertinent character data are analysed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings, subsequently subjected to psychoanalytic film analysis, enrich a deeper understanding and fuller appreciation of the representation of the unconscious in the cinematic domain.

Keywords: Christopher Nolan, Inception, Psychoanalysis, Unconscious, Film Criticism.

Sustainable Development Goals: Quality Education

Citation: Çelik, D. & Elmaci, T. (2024). The Unconscious as Cinematographic Form: A Psychoanalytic Reading of Inception. Rupkatha Journal 16:1. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.04g 

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Book Review: Spiritual Sensations: Cinematic Religious Experience and Evolving Conceptions of the Sacred by Sarah K. Balstrup

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Publisher: Bloomsbury Academic
Date of Publication: 2021
Language: English
ISBN: 9781350130173

Reviewed by
Anton Karl Kozlovic
School of Communication and Creative Arts, Deakin University & College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Flinders University

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 15, Issue 4, 2023. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v15n4.r02
[First published: 26 November 2023.]
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This painstakingly researched dissertation turned monograph is the latest offering in a scant series of academic endeavours akin to Devotional Cinema (Nathaniel Dorsky, 2003), Cinema and Sentiment: Film’s Challenge to Theology (Clive Marsh, 2004), and Dreams, Doubt, and Dread: The Spiritual in Film (Zachary Settle & Taylor Worley, 2016). Balstrup attempted to use the popular cinema for ‘an exploration of spiritual experiences and the conditions that are necessary to bring them about…[because] film directors are particularly well equipped to engage the senses and to facilitate powerful viewing experiences’ (p. 1).

Inspired by the work of Paul Schrader, but rejecting his notion of transcendental style in favour of an alternative spirituality, she focused her research upon three contemporary Western, English-language filmic exemplars, namely: Stanley Kubrick’s SF classic 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) [hereafter 2001], the France-based Argentinean Gaspar Noé’s erotic fantasy-drama Enter the Void (2009), and the Denmark-based Danish Lars von Trier’s doomed SF-domestic drama Melancholia (2011). Balstrup claimed that these directors generated ‘viewer responses that are reminiscent of traditional accounts of mystical experience’ (p. 1) via their deployment of cinematic ‘devices of richness and intensity that overwhelm the viewer’s senses’ (p. 3). This overwhelming of one’s senses was a psychophysical defining marker that (supposedly) established ‘the increased importance of intense and abstract experiences as characteristic of an authentic encounter with truth’ (p. 2), whatever ‘authentic’ and ‘truth’ operationally meant to her.

Balstrup had aimed to transcend traditional Western historical-critical approaches, narrative analysis, and the seeking of religious or symbolic motifs, in favour of searching for a subjective ‘state of mind and affective qualities’ (p. 14) that ‘effectively guides viewers into a “meditative” state’ (p. 17), as her film trilogy supposedly did. In short, viewers emotionally immersed themselves in watching a movie and hopefully, find the Divine therein as indicated by the ‘overwhelming experiences of otherness [that] resonate with truth beyond truth’ (p. 191) whatever that esoteric phrase meant in practice. However, like all of its investigative ilk, attempting to make the ineffable effable is always fraught with danger and inevitably leaves one often puzzled.

Despite her spiritual aspiration, Balstrup’s academic analysis was based upon an admitted ‘unruly mixture’ (p. x) of impressionistic reviewer testimonies found within the Internet Movie Database (IMDb), but which resulted in a grossly unbalanced interrogation of evidence given the 1968, 2009, and 2011 filmic release dates with an arbitrary 2016 cut-off date for comment access. Overlooking the self-selection bias prompting reviewers to comment, which inherently skewed the data, its quality was also questionable since ‘clarification about the deeper meaning of comments cannot be obtained’ (p. x) beyond surface appearances and hoped-for meanings.

Be that as it may, most disappointing of all, Balstrup claimed that her carefully selected film trilogy with its internally crafted mystical-like experiences contained ‘no overt religious references…[and were] free from explicit religious content’ (p. 2). This was no minor or irrelevant claim; especially since a cursory review of the films revealed her confidence to be unwarranted. For example, 2001’s Frank Poole’s mother ended her Earth transmission with ‘God bless,’ both parents sang Happy Birthday as a Christian celebratory ritual, and especially when Discovery 1 approached Jupiter, vertically aligned planets were horizontally intersected by a large orbiting monolith to form a cosmic cross prior to Bowman’s stargate entry. Thus, confirming Kubrick’s claim that 2001 was MGM’s first 10-million dollar religious film, with the God concept at its heart.

Enter the Void featured the deceased Oscar’s voyeuristic out-of-body wanderings of his disembodied soul-spirit-consciousness (utilizing impressive first-person camerawork) through the Bardo realms that ended when reborn as a baby. But even more surprising, Balstrup candidly admitted to ‘religious content in its reference to the Tibetan Book of the Dead’ (p. 2). That sacred Buddhist terma text was repeatedly deployed therein as a film prop, discussed by Oscar, Linda and Alex, alongside twin neon-signs labelled ‘Enter’ ‘The Void,’ and a prolonged discussion of the Buddhist death process.

Balstrup then admitted: ‘Buddhist concepts appear to be relevant to viewing experiences of 2001, Enter the Void, and Melancholia…as a site of open-minded contemplation that is free from expectation’ (p. 18). And yet, Alex’s prolonged Buddhist-death-process explication generated a strong expectation of its occurrence, which then occurred, rather than freeing up the viewer’s interpretative possibilities. Whilst Melancholia featured a Christian church-based white wedding, a visual reference to Caravaggio’s David with the Head of Goliath, and dialogue references to ‘bewitched,’ ‘hell,’ ‘evil,’ ‘heaven’s sake,’ ‘My God,’ ‘Abraham,’ and ‘Little Father’ in various dramatic contexts throughout.

SFX-wise, David Bowman’s dazzling psychedelic journey through 2001’s stargate to become a luminous star-child, and Oscar’s terrestrial DMT-drug hallucinations in Enter the Void were far more interesting visually than the subsequent meandering of Oscar’s amorphous soul-spirit-consciousness through a bland luminous void (done better in the electronically-recorded death in Brainstorm [1983]) that highlighted pornographic voyeurism designed to do what exactly? Generate audience sexual arousal that abstractly equated groin itch with spirituality?

Furthermore, Balstrup’s equating of Noé replicating ‘the experience of the dreaming mind’ (p. 125) to generate a ‘psychedelic and spiritualized film experience’ (p. 125) begs the question rather than reveals the reality since the oneiric apparently now equals the mystical. One argues that equating powerful viewing experiences with profound spiritual experiences is not necessarily ontological equivalents as Balstrup implied. Indeed, what does it mean if one watches but does not achieve that predicted ‘“meditative” state’ (p. 17)?

The beautiful but death-dealing massive blue planet in Melancholia generated John’s scientific excitement then suicide, Leo’s childish excitement then fun, Claire’s chronic anxiety then despair, and Justine’s anxiety turned into stoic acceptance of the extinction of all life. None of which automatically generated awe-inspiring spiritual experiences that provoked ‘a cognitive shift characterized by a noetic feeling of higher unity’ (p. 188), supposedly ‘cinematic mysticism’ (p. 192). At best, it was just a deeper emotional state worthy of intensive meditative self-reflection; even if ultimately spiritually unobtainable and ineffable. Given the release of these three films many decades ago, how many viewers have achieved powerful religious and spiritual experiences induced by watching them, and how would one know?

Production-wise, the monograph has good quality printing, firm covering, acceptable binding, and is reasonably priced, but sorely missed were instructive tables, explanatory graphics, an author index, or any illustrative screenshots highlighting Balstrup’s points, which was especially unsettling for a tome championing the artform of the 20th and 21st century. Surprisingly, the ‘Kubrick, Stanley’ (p. 218) index entry made no reference to 2001. Whilst the missing address details of the numerous IMDb reviewers referenced were academically undesirable, but pragmatically understandable given their sometimes maddening, space-demanding complexity; albeit, all making this detailed academic text not very scholar-friendly.

Overall, Spiritual Sensations: Cinematic Religious Experience and Evolving Conceptions of the Sacred is important and noteworthy for its attempt to shed light by exploring more deeply a grossly under-investigated subset of the emerging religion-and-film field that few have attempted before. This fact alone makes it worth recommending for any library’s genre collection or perusal by knowledgeable postgraduates, undergraduates, or the general reader eager to enter the academic affray.

Anton Karl Kozlovic researches in the field of religion and film at Deakin University (Victoria, Australia) and Flinders University (South Australia, Australia). He holds a PhD, MA, MEd, Med Studies from Flinders University, a BA (Social Sciences), BEd, Graduate Diploma in Education from Adelaide University, a BA (Humanities) from Deakin University, a Graduate Diploma of Education (Religious Education) from the South Australian College of Advanced Education [now UniSA], a Graduate Diploma in Media from the Australian Film, Television & Radio School, and is currently completing a second PhD at Deakin University. He has published numerous academic papers and book chapters. He is the recipient of multiple scholarships and awards and has published numerous film-related entries within the multi-volume Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception.

 

The Dialectics of the Performance of the Kecak Ramayana in Uluwatu, Bali, Indonesia

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Robby Hidajat1, Utami Widiati2, E.W. Suprihatin D.P3, Guntur4 & Surasak Jamnongsarn5
1-3Department of Art and Design, Faculty of Letters, Universitas Negeri Malang. Email: robby.hidajat.fs@um.ac.id
4Department of Craft, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Surakarta
5Department of Traditional Thai and Asian Music, Faculty of Fine Arts, Srinakharinwirot University

[Submitted 05 May 20023, modified 20 June 2023, accepted 22 June 2023, first published 24 June 2023]

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 15, Issue 2, June 2023. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v15n2.13
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Theoretical
The Ramayana kecak is a popular tourist art in Bali that is rich in symbolism. The audience watches only from the front of the stage, which is formalistic in nature, witnessing different scenes, characteristics of figures, structures, and dramatic factors. The performers are not aware that the backstage is the realm of rituals and a part of the deep experience of spiritual beliefs. The front stage and backstage should be viewed as complementary duality. Activities behind the stage are more natural while those on the front stage are a manipulation. The backstage can be understood as a dramaturgical richness of a paradoxical and symbolic Eastern performing art. Therefore, the appeal of the backstage is not an attractive consideration. This research uses a qualitative descriptive approach. The data were collected through in-depth interviews with Ramayana kecak artists at Uluwatu Temple, Bali, and a document analysis was done. The theories used are symbolic interpretation, text and context, and symbolic structure. The results of the research present a description of the dramaturgy of Balinese performing art with a specific focus on: 1. Dramaturgy of the front stage, 2. Dramaturgy of the backstage, and 3. Local spiritual aesthetics including the spirit of duality known as taksu which is rooted in Rwa Bhineda.

Keywords: Kecak Ramayana, dramaturgy, performing art, Uluwatu Temple.

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Ballet in Virtual Reality: On the Problem of Synthesizing “End-to-End” Technologies and Theatrical Stage Art

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Tatiana V. Portnova
The Kosygin State University of Russia, Moscow, Russian Federation. Email: portnova_ta@bk.ru

Submitted 10 January 2022, modified 27 May 2023, accepted 17 June 2023, first published 21 June 2023

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 15, Issue 2, June 2023. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v15n2.12
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Abstract

The article is devoted to the study of the problem of synthesizing “end-to-end” technologies and theatrical (stage) art. The author proceeds from the fact that in the era of industrialization, a person’s perceptual practices are carried out through the prism of a new, generative reality, which, consequently, causes the transformation of the spatial-temporal model of aesthetic experience. However, the artist as the creator of a work of art, having a special sensitivity to reality, can see what may be inaccessible to his audience. The hypothesis is put forward that this ability is based on a simultaneous perception of time and space, the fundamentalization of which in the perceptual practice and aesthetic experience of the viewer is the main task of a modern artist. The verification of this hypothesis was carried out through the prism of the synthesis of virtual reality as an “end-to-end” digital technology and stage (choreographic) art, where time and space become the subject of artistic reflection. The methodological foundation of the research is based on a discursive analysis, which allows us to understand, firstly, how modern stage (choreographic) digital art offers the viewer to make a path on his own, with a “previously passed meaning” and with the help of his already existing perceptual experience; secondly, how the artist, as the creator of a work of digital art, builds and carries out a “conversation” with the viewer through the prism of the simultaneous communicative space initiated by him. The author emphasizes that a modern artist, regardless of his/her role in art, must have the skill of discursive analysis to be able to create a communicative space in which the viewer will be able to gain perceptual experience and independently “realize” the temporal-spatial mega-code, and understand the idea of the artist, regardless of how much it is hidden from the audience. In turn, the ability to discursive analysis of the viewer will allow you to collect and disperse meanings, transform them, return them to their original state and let them go back into the element of the game of signifiers, offering yourself to overcome the path in the semantic landscape of the work of theatrical (stage, choreographic) art.

Keywords: “end-to-end” technologies, theatrical art, choreographic art, virtual reality, perceptual practice, ballet, space, time.

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Precarity in Korean Film Industry: A Cultural Research Perspective

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Kyuha Ryoo
Lecturer, Department of Entertainment, Joongbu University, Korea. Email: entertainowl@gmail.com

Received 05 January 2022, modified 15 May 2023, accepted 05 June 2023, first published 13 June 2023.

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 15, Issue 2, June 2023. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v15n2.08
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Abstract

The Korean film industry has achieved remarkable success in recent years. However, the filmmakers behind the scenes have received relatively little attention, leading to precarious labor conditions. This paper aims to shed light on the reality that filmmakers face through participatory observation at film production sites. Commercial film shooting sites were visited and observed 14 times over 3 months. The researcher observed various aspects of the film sites from a cultural research perspective. In particular, the researcher used the theory of flexibility to assess the type of employment, labor process, and socialization of filmmakers. The study revealed that Korean filmmakers experience labor flexibility and are constantly exposed to the risk of extreme work-life balance disruption and job loss. This is due to the nature of their work, which often involves long hours and tight deadlines. The study also found that Korean filmmakers are often underpaid and undervalued, despite their contributions to the industry. The researcher hopes that this study will raise awareness about the challenges faced by Korean filmmakers and encourage further research into this important topic. By shedding light on these issues, we can work towards creating a more equitable and sustainable film industry in Korea.

Keywords: Korean Filmmakers, Korean Filmmaking, Field Observation, Labor Flexibility

Film Review: Who is Encroaching? Narratives of Land Encroachment in Kantara

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Reviewed by

Kumuda Ch. Panigrahi

Assistant Professor of Sociology, Department of Rural Studies, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, West Bengal-731235. Email id: kumudac.panigrahi@visva-bharati.ac.in

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 15, Issue 2, June 2023. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v15n2.07
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Abstract

This paper reviews Kantara: A Legend, a Kannada language movie, released on 30th September 2022. This anthropological action thriller is based on the culture of coastal Karnataka, however cultural borders between Kerala and Karnataka, blur in many places. It flags off issues of tribals, forests, land encroachment and the mythology of smaller hamlets in rural India. ‘Kantara’ has brilliantly manifested the subject of land encroachment using historical narrative. Here, we found three narratives of land encroachment: 1) the Narrative of land encroachment by the feudal Zamindar, 2) the Narrative of Land encroachment by tribals and 3) the Narrative of Land encroachment by forest officers/state actors. While themes of tribal assertion, misogyny, untouchability, women’s empowerment and role conflict are meticulously discussed through character analysis of the movie.  Most intriguingly, the ideas of spirituality and community consciousness are discussed through a mythological analysis of the Kola festival, which appears as a site of solidarity and togetherness among the villagers. Overall, these themes have been woven like a fine tapestry of music, dance and drama.

Keywords: land encroachment, community consciousness, mythology, tribal assertion, solidarity.
 
Introduction

Tribals are known as the aborigines of Indian society who predominantly live in the forest and mountain region and completely depend on nature for their survival. Tribal communities are mostly isolated and prefer autonomy over their livelihood patterns. However, interference with their autonomy and independence began with the British colonial administration of India; through encroachment. This practice continued after the independence of India using development-induced displacement. It has not only undesirably impacted their lives, but also destroyed their socio-culture, economy, history and memories. Awareness and interest towards ‘other communities’ is the need of the hour, which might be best projected through cinemas and documentaries. Cinema is considered one of the key media of public voice, which flags off the social problems and challenges of specific communities and provides a nuanced picture of society’s institutions. However, issues of tribals, forests, land encroachment and displacement are rarely showcased by Indian cinema. With the release of   Kantara: A Legend is a Kannada language movie (released in Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, and Malayalam also), written and directed by Rishab Shetty and produced by Vijay Kiragandur, under Hombale Films on 30 September 2022, is a remarkable entry into the cinema industry on the subject which has been undermined and neglected for long.

This anthropological action thriller movie is designed based on the culture of coastal Karnataka (Tulunadu). Thus, this movie demands critical academic engagement. It’s a spiritual experience that is difficult to be described, rather than to be felt. It takes back to the tales grandmothers narrate to the younger generation, the folktales of Kings and Demons, of a spiritual connection between humans and Gods. Adjacent areas of Kerala hum stories of  Kummati Kali, Chakyar Koothu, Ottam Thullal, and the venerable Velichapadu. Kantara is set in the picturesque Tulu Nadu, which straddles the coastal region from Kasaragod in Kerala to Mangalore, Ullal, Udupi, and Kundapura in Karnataka and slightly beyond. The cultural borders between Kerala and Karnataka, blur in many places.  The Bhoota Kola reminds of the Theyyam art form of northern Kerala, which is almost extremely similar in music, costumes and trance. It also mirrors Velichapadu, the oracle in temples of Kerala, who is possessed by the spirit of God and serves as a bridge between the Deity and Devotees.

Plot and Character Development

The film narrates a story back and forth dating 1847 in the Kundapur village of Karnataka, where the king being disappointed with his life, went in search of peace towards the deep forests. He came across Guliga Daiva amidst the forest. The king answered his inner calling and agreed with Guliga Daiva to trade the forest land to the local tribespeople in exchange for peace and happiness. Over the generations, in the 1970’s the King’s successor demanded the land back from the tribals and also warns the court to appeal if denied his legitimate land. Soon he dies a mysterious death, often narrated (oral history/folklore) as the wrath of Guliga Daiva. The king’s descendants are not willing to honour that unwritten agreement, and as was expected of them, start demanding that the land be returned to them. More recently in the 1990s, Devendra (zamindar/successor of the king) hypocritically tried to get back the land in a deceitful manner (which includes treachery, murder and riots). On the other hand, the DRFO officer (named Murali) vested with the duty of drawing the boundaries of the forest, soon locked horns with the local villagers, restricting them from entering the forest and securing woods/ hunting animals (which had been prevalent for ages). To make matters more complicated, a villager (named Leela) who happens to be the childhood heart-throb of protagonist Shiva, with the help of the zamindar’s influence got the posting as forest guard. She is seen juxtaposed between her official role of demarcating forest boundaries and on the other hand, her obligations as a member of the community and village who needs to despise the tribunal of fencing forest land. Her character is depicted as an ensemble of feminine instincts with strong passion and commitment towards training and job. However, she is projected similarly to a concubine, who had an intimate relationship with the protagonist, beyond marital ties. Eve-teasing (pinching the waistline to express affection/spark) is also projected in a light tone, which gave way to love and acceptance. Misogyny of the society got reflected through the dialogue of the police, who assert that Leela has to satisfy Shiva out of love and satisfy the government out of Job.  She is time and again asked to leave her job by both villagers and her lover.  The DRDO officer suspended her for being disloyal towards her job, in trying to save Shiva from arrest.

Devendra (zamindar) wanted to seek vengeance against Daiva’s fellow villagers for mysteriously killing his father, and he wanted the villagers to sell their land to him. He requested Guruva (Shiva’s cousin brother, a man of repute and sanctity, whom the villagers worship as the performer of the Kola[1] dance) to convince the villagers of the same. On refusal, Guruva was murdered. Having learnt about Guruva’s death, Shiva meets Devendra, who lies about Murali being Guruva’s killer. Devendra and his henchman attack the village where an intense battle ensues. Shiva gets seriously injured and dies, whereas Guliga Daiva possesses him and decapitates Devendra and his henchman. Post this, Shiva performs Bhoota Kola, where he again gets possessed by the Daiva and disappears into the forest forever just like his father.

Shiva: symbol of tribal assertion

Rishab Shetty‘s storytelling is unparalleled, and so is his portrayal of Shiva, a person who oscillates between irresponsibility and divinity. The protagonist Shiva in this film has been depicted as the most powerful character; playing multiple roles as irresponsible youth who enjoy most of the time with his friends having alcohol and killing the animals from the forest. On the other hand, Shiva is an assertive person, a fighter who is much more conscious and aware of the rights of his people, voicing against discrimination practised by the Zamindar and his associates against his community members, by entering the house of the Zamindar and eating across the same table, exclaiming that  ‘zamindar can enter the house of tribals than why cannot the tribals to the house of zamindar.’  However, such social distancing is presented as a taken-for-granted, mundane phenomenon in the village (which does not call for rebellion or remorse) but Shiva was the first to voice against it. Further, when the forest officer says that the forest is government property and tribals are using it without permission, Shiva revolted saying that the ‘government must take permission from villagers to enter here because the forest belongs to them and they were here for generations.’  In the last scene of the movie, Shiva bravely fought against the goons of the zamindar when they attack the villagers in order to encroach on the forest land. He fights till the end and becomes unconscious while fighting. However, village ‘deiva’ suddenly appear and blow air from its mouth and then Shiva got up with possession of ‘deiva’s spirit and kills the goons and save the villagers from the encroachment of land by the Zamindar. Similar to other dominant Indian cinemas, this movie also depicts a male protagonist as a saviour and protector which represent the innate nature of patriarchy. This movie celebrates male supremacy and masculinity through the character of Shiva.

Women Empowerment, Misogyny and Role Conflict

Being a marginalized community, the tribals were far away from education which kept them ignorant for a long. In the Kantara movie, it showed that except for ‘Leela’, the majority of the villagers are illiterate. ‘Leela’ is an educated girl who aspires to join government services instead of joining the traditional occupation of her community. She succeeded by clearing the forest guard examination and joined the forest office of her village (through the Zamindar’s influence over posting) after completing her training. After, joining duty her role was jeopardized, by opposing role expectations. The forest department was against the villagers and it instructed her to follow the government order of land eviction. On the other hand, her family, villagers, and her beloved Shiva were not in favour of her job; knowing that she has been used against the villagers in supposed matters of land encroachment. They instructed her to leave the job. This situation puts her in a role conflict, whether to continue her job for which she has worked hard or to support the villagers. On many occasions, women have to sacrifice and are expected to compromise their position in such a patriarchal society. However, here it shows that Leela did not compromise. She was headstrong and balanced her duty with the community.  This shows her courage, self-determination and right to choose her own life, projected as a good example of women empowerment.  When the zamindar’s henchmen attacked the villagers, Leela being aware of her rights and obligations, first showed her assertion by throwing an iron bar aiming at the zamindar. The majority of female characters in the movie enjoy subordinated positions compared with the male characters, whereas the character of ‘Leela’ has been an exceptional one showing education and economic independence as an essential means of women’s empowerment. However, Leela has been projected as performing both household chores and her job which is a predominant picture of the majority of employed women vested with dual responsibility.  

Narrative of Land Encroachment

Land and forest have immense value in tribal’s life which is attached to their livelihood, culture, religion and identity. Several battles have been fought; lives have been sacrificed to capture the land. In human history, ownership of land was contested by kings and their subjects; while presently the state and capitalists emerged as key competitors in this domain. ‘Kantara’ has brilliantly manifested the subject of land encroachment using historical narrative. Here, we found three narratives of land encroachment: 1) the Narrative of land encroachment by Zamindar, 2) the Narrative of Land encroachment by tribals and 3) the Narrative of Land encroachment by forest officers/state actors. In this section, we have discussed how these narratives have established dialogue with each other through the idea of land acquisition.  The zamindar’s perspective suggests that the land belongs to him because it was owned by his ancestor who was a king and gave the land to the tribals being fooled in the name of ‘Deiva’. Therefore, he leaves no stone unturned to get back his land. He wanted to establish his ownership of inheritance by preparing documents of his legal heir at the same time getting the consent of villagers to sign the documents (through gullible means). The second narrative is of the state, represented by forest officers. It shows that land and forest belong to the government and villagers have forcibly captured it without permission of the government. The state’s perspective suggests that the state wanted to declare the region as a reserved forest by using its authority and rule of law. This step renders the zamindar’s legal inheritance documents null and void, simultaneously conferring the tribals as criminal tribals who exploit forest resources and hunt wildlife in the name of survival. Several scenes depict the geographical region as unique and call for a sophisticated approach for the ‘sensitive region’. However, power has no grounds for sensitiveness and sophistication.  The third perspective is of the people, who consider themselves as real inhabitants of the forest, real occupants of the region, and who shared ancestral history, religion, culture, and memory with the forest. Therefore, the inhabitants consider the ‘state’ and ‘zamindar’ as outsiders and refute all other narratives. This suggests that the state has entered their territory without taking the permission of villagers. The tribal perspective focuses on the tribal autonomy over land and forest resources whereas the state claims to assert and establish its rule of law. The concluding scene of the movie depicted too is very interesting and leads us to develop a perspective of harmony and cooperation from the different stakeholders. It shows that after killing Zamindar and his goons, the villagers celebrate the Kola festival where ‘Daiva’ possessed Shiva and invite the villagers, and forest officers to hold their hands together on his chest; by giving the message of cooperation and integration. The movie develops this perspective that forests and mountains need to be protected along with animals and at the same time tribal/people who are living in those forests and their culture, religion, history and memories also need to be protected. Therefore, this demands understanding, cooperation, commitment and solidarity from all the stakeholders whether it is the state, the tribals or anybody else.     

Conclusion

Kantara has shown what life in remote hamlets of tribal areas is all about – the humdrum of their everyday life, their rituals, their drinking habits, their food, their simple living and finally, their belief in the tradition and reverence for their Gods.  There is also the way of life of the tribals in their hunting, their forestry produce, and their land – which the government believes has been encroached upon. Religion and religious festivals have great essence in the life of tribals. Tribal religion is associated with land, forest and nature. The Kola festival is a depiction of such a picture of coexistence of people, nature and mythical objects. The Kola festivals appear as a site of solidarity and togetherness among the villagers. Overall, these themes have been woven like a fine tapestry of music, dance and drama. Kantara takes folks back to their roots, traditions, and rich and varied culture. This movie resonates amongst the viewers as a cultural renaissance. The movie provides a perspective of cooperation and solidarity among all the stakeholders to tackle issues related to forests. It makes us think about development and empowerment beyond displacement, deforestation and absorption.

Acknowledgment

I would like to thank the co-author of this review Ms. Kanchan Biswas, Ph.D Research Scholar, Centre for the Study of Social Systems, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi- 110067.

A brief version of the film review has also been published in an academic student blog at  https://doingsociology.org

[1] Kola (also referred to as Daiva Kola or Néma) is an animist form of Spirit worship from the coastal districts of Tulu Nadu and some parts of Malénadu of Karnataka and Kasargod in Northern Kerala, India. The dance is highly stylized and held in honor of the local deities worshiped by the Tulu-speaking population. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buta_Kola)

The Effects of Social Media Networking on the Academic Performances of Students

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535 views

Somantri Manap1, Sumarsih2, Asti P. Kartiwi3, Lilis Karwati4

1Department of Educational Administration, Faculty of Training and Teacher Education, Universitas Bengkulu. ORCID: 0000-0002-5636-2137. Email: manapsomantris@gmail.com. Corresponding author

2Department of Educational Administration, Faculty of Training and Teacher Education, Universitas Bengkulu. ORCID: 0000-0002-1709-1987. Email: ssumarsih282@gmail.com

3Department of Educational Administration, Faculty of Training and Teacher Education, Universitas Bengkulu. ORCID: 0000-0001-8927-8153. Email: astipartiwi@outlook.com

4Program of Community Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Siliwangi. ORCID: 0000-0001-6304-3137. Email: lliliskarwati@gmail.com

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 4, December, 2022. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.23
Abstract Full-Text PDF Issue Access

Abstract

While there are more subtle functional contrasts between current cell phones and exemplary PCs, one distinction is still there: cells are almost consistently with you and allow you to interface with different administrations and organizations at practically anytime and any place. Present-day young people, who are oftentimes alluded to be “advanced locals” or “Homo Zappiens” because of their ability to all the while interacting with different enlightening channels, are being depicted as evolving. All in all, advanced youngsters are multitaskers. Undergraduates and postgraduates are supposedly the quickest adopters of wireless innovation, as per the reports taken in Indonesian Colleges and Universities. Moreover, new information recommends that incessant utilization of mobile phones might adversely affect youngsters’ well-being and conduct. In this way, utilizing an enormous example of undergraduate and postgraduate students in Indonesia (N = 298) and messaging (N = 298), we investigated the impacts of mobile phone use overall (N = 298) and messaging (N = 298). It was anticipated that nervousness and Scholastic Execution (GPA) would go about as go-between in the relationship. Two distinct way models showed that the messaging and mobile phone use models fit the information well in general. Thusly, GPA was well associated with SWL while tension was antagonistically connected with SWL. PDA use and messaging were adversely connected with GPA and emphatically connected with uneasiness. These outcomes add to the conversation around the utilization of phones by undergraduates and postgraduates and how this utilization might adversely affect learning, emotional wellness, and abstract prosperity or joy.

Keywords: Mobile phone, Facebook, Academic performances, GPA, Anxiety

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‘Healing the World with Comedy’: Anxiety and Sublimation in Bo Burnham’s Inside

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535 views

Ann Christina Pereira1 & Dr Sarika Tyagi2
1Research scholar, Department of English, Vellore Institute of Technology-Vellore. ORCID: 0000-0002-2555-4910. Email: ann.pereira9213@gmail.com;
2Professor, Department of English, Vellore Institute of Technology-Vellore. ORCID: 0000-0001-5144-9981. Email: tyagisarika27@gmail.com

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 4, December, 2022. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.12 
Abstract Full-Text PDF Issue Access

Abstract

Bo Burnham is a critically acclaimed American stand-up comedian and filmmaker. The usual themes in his works are the hypocrisy of artists, the commercialisation of art, and the role of social media in erasing the boundary between the public and the private. However, during the pandemic, he chose to focus on the theme of anxiety, a minor theme in his earlier works. Anxiety has been considered an integral part of modernity as discussed by Anthony Giddens and Zygmunt Bauman. In psychoanalysis, anxiety has been explained in a number of different ways. In current psychological discourse, anxiety is described as an unpleasant state of mind that can cause significant bodily and mental stress. The anxiety that Burnham experienced prior to the pandemic appears to have amplified during the pandemic. Two main types of anxiety are observable in the shows of Burnham—performance anxiety and existential anxiety. This paper seeks to understand Burnham’s show Inside (2021) using Anna Segal’s contribution to the concept of ‘sublimation’. We argue that in doing the show Inside, Burnham discovers a new way to acknowledge and channel his ‘depressive’ symptoms towards contemporary times, and he achieves sublimation in the process.

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Ngozi Udengwu1 & Dr. Michael O. Ukonu2
1Senior Lecturer, Department of Theatre and Film Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. ORCID: 0000-0003-4966-5807. Email: ngozi.udengwu@unn.edu.ng
2 Senior Lecturer, Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. ORCID: 0000-0003-4797-4884. Email: michael.ukonu@unn.edu.ng

Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 4, December, 2022. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.07 
Abstract Full-Text PDF Issue Access

Abstract

The study interrogated university students’ perception of suicide in a social system where self-murder is seen as a taboo yet constantly on the increase. In light of the difficulty expressed in studies on detecting risky behaviour, we focused on the influences of social factors on the perception of the normality and preventability of suicide. We administered a 47-item questionnaire to 490 students from five universities in Southeast Nigeria. Frequencies, percentages, Pearson’s bivariate correlation coefficient and multivariable binary logistic regression were used to analyze data. We found a significant positive but weak relationship between the perception of the normality of suicide and the perception of the preventability of suicide. The majority of the respondents did not show a tendency to suicide but ironically acknowledged that the high prevalence of risk factors such as depression were expected and normal. Place of residence, being seen as deeply religious, and the class of study had a significant impact on the perception of the normality and preventability of suicide. We discussed the implications of our findings on social integration among students.

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